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Introduction
Anthropology as a study of evolution gives a broad understanding of the human experience and the different aspects that explain the lives of other human groups who lived thousands of years ago. Anthropology studies the diet, health, bones, and genetics of humans and, in some cases comparing humans with other animals (Lieberman, Daniel). Anthropology has four subfields which are; archeology, biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. Anthropology helps us understand different forms of fossil species and better understand how humans in the past lived. For example, some people believe that humans came from similar species, while others say natural selection facilitated biological adaptation(Lieberman, Daniel).
Aegyptopithecus Zeuxis
The species is an early fossil known from one species and is believed to link Miocene and Eocene fossils. From its postcranial and craniodental remains, Aegyptopithecus Zeuxis is now the best among other known extinct primates. The discovery of Aegyptopithecus was made in the Gabal Qatrani formation by Elwyn (Simons in central Egypt Simons, Elwyn L., and David R. Pilbeam). The fossil was discovered in the year 1966 and it was concluded that it was about 30 million years old. The fossil had a dental formula of 2:1:2:3 on both jaws, and the size of the lower molars was increasing posteriorly.
The ratio of brain to body weight of Aegyptopithecus is said to be strepsirrhine-like. Scientists think this form was sexually dimorphic due to its brain size, body mass, tooth size, and craniofacial morphology. From the overall morphology, the structure is believed to have been robust, and its distal articular region places it in the arboreal quadruped group (Yanai, Itai, et al.). The humerus, femur, and phalanges of the feet and hands suggest arboreal quadrupedalism. Dental micro sutures and microwear, especially its molars, suggest that Aegyptopithecus most probably was a frugivore and occasionally ate complex objects. The form lived in northern Egypt in the Fayum area. The area had vegetation, received seasonal rainfall, was subtropical, and had many trees in aegyptopithecus time. Today the site lacks vegetation and is semiarid.
Early Miocene monkey-like ape proconsul heseloni
The species is a genus of primates that is extinct and was in existence 21- 14 million years ago. The fossil remains of proconsul heseloni are found in eastern Africa. The environmental characteristics of their habitats range from more open, arid grasslands to forested forests. It is believed that Proconsul could be ancestral to all apes, and its long flexible back gives it monkey-like features (Simons, Elwyn L., and David R. Pilbeam, pg 36-62). In addition, its ability to grasp and stabilize its facial structure and elbow joints give it more ape resemblance. A partial jaw that was the first proconsul specimen was discovered in 1909 at Koru in the western parts of Kenya. Proconsul had a well-developed ectotympanic tube, and it lacked a tail. The species also had sexually dimorphic canines, and their skulls lacked supraorbital tori, which is considered prognathous.
The dental formula of a proconsul was 2.1.2.3. The diet of Proconsul ranged from ripe fruits to leaves, and from its fossils, the species had a large brain relative to its body size. The fossils of Proconsul suggest that they lived in forests or grasslands, but it is still uncertain (Simons, Elwyn L., and David R. Pilbeam, pg 36-62). Nevertheless, Proconsul was the first unearthed prehistoric mammal in sub-Saharan Africa and also the oldest ape identified. Great apes and gibbon in evolutionary biology are said to share one common ancestral lineage and might include proconsul. The name proconsul means before a certain chimpanzee came into being and this could imply that proconsul one of chimpanzees ancestral lineage.
Afropithecus turkanensis
Afropithecus is a genus that was a monkey-like creature, and its fossils were excavated near Lake Turkana, northern Kenya. Richard and Meave Leakey discovered the fossils in 1986 and named them afropitheus turkanensis (Leakey, R E et al.). It is estimated to be 16 to 18 million years old. The years were determined by geological studies and dating techniques that are radiometric. Afropithecus turkanensis was first described as giant hominoids with thick enamels. The postcranial features of A. turkanensis resembled those of proconsul nyanzae and were considered primitive and had a facial morphology that was also primitive (Leakey, R E et al.). The derived dental characteristics and its primitive facial morphology suggested that the species diet was hard fruits.
Most of the cranial morphology of A. turkanensis was lost over time and replaced by calcite crystals providing only the general shape and leaving out the details. A. turkanensis is known for its thick enameled hominoid and distinguishes it from Kenyapithecus (Leakey, R E et al.). The palate of A. turkanensis is long, shallow, and narrow, with tooth rows that might have been parallel originally. A. turkanensis had a diastema 6.5mm long between the canine and second incisor, which were procumbent. The teeth morphological analysis shows that the species was used to a sclerocarpic foraging diet. The right fibula of the species resembles the size of pan troglodytes.
Orangutans (pongo pygmaeus)
Orangutans are natives of Malaysia and Indonesias rainforests and are species of great apes. They are currently found in Sumatra and Borneo but ranged throughout south china and southern Asia during the Pleistocene (Lieberman, Daniel). Today orangutans are the only survivors of subfamily Ponginae species which genetically diverge from several other hominids like chimpanzees between 15.7 and 19.3 million years ago. Orangutans have short legs and long arms, and they mostly stay in trees. Adult females weigh about 37kgs, and the males weigh up to 75kgs (Lieberman, Daniel). The essential component of its diet is fruits, but they also eat insects, tree barks, bird eggs, honey, and vegetation. Their life span is over 30 years, whether in captivity or the wild. Orangutans are more intelligent than any other primates, and they can build sleeping nests using foliage and branches.
The existing orangutans are endangered because their population and ranges are declining at an alarming rate because of human activities. Humans are destroying their habitats through deforestation, and they also use orangutans for the illegal pet trade (Simons, Elwyn L., and David R. Pilbeam, pg. 36-62). In the subfamily Ponginae, the only extant members are the three orangutan species. The extinct members of this subfamily include lufengpithecus, Ardipithecus, Sivapithecus, who are believed to have lived in more relaxed and drier environments than the current orangutans. Fossils of orangutan subspecies have been discovered in some parts of southern Asia. The reduction of forest habitats in the last glacial maximum led to the decrease in the range of orangutans when the Pleistocene ended (Simons, Elwyn L., and David R. Pilbeam, pg 36-62). Orangutans have a significant display of sexual dimorphism, with the males standing 137cms tall and the females 115cm. Females and children have narrow faces and rounded skulls, while males develop large cheek pads and sagittal crest.
The hip, shoulder, and arm joints have the same flexibility enabling the orangutans to move through trees with fewer restrictions. The orangutans can move vertically and suspend themselves on trees, and they rarely stay on the ground because they become more cumbersome. Orangutans spend most of their daytime feeding, traveling, and resting. They usually live in habitats near rivers and tropical rainforests. Unlike other great apes, orangutans live a solitary lifestyle, and most social bonds are witnessed between females and their offspring (Simons, Elwyn L., and David R. Pilbeam, pg. 36-62). Adult males dominate over younger males, and they have to keep their distance to avoid fights. Orangutans use different sounds and vocals to communicate, and most of these sounds are made by males to attract females.
Chimpanzee (pan troglodytes)
The chimpanzee, also called the common chimpanzee, is a native to the savannah of tropical Africa forests. This species has four subspecies that are confirmed and a fifth one that is yet to be confirmed. Males weigh 40-70kgs, and females weigh 27-50kgs and are 120-150 cm long (Wessling, Erin G., et al., pg. 822-848). Their gestation period is eight months, and they live in groups of 15 to 150 members. The chimpanzees live in a male-dominated hierarchy, and they solve their disputes amicably without violence. Various records have determined that chimpanzees use rocks, grass, modifying sticks, leave, and tools. They also use them to get honey, water, nuts, ants, and termites. They have severally been confirmed to make and use sharp sticks to kill small mammals (Wessling, Erin G., et al., pg 822-848). Chimpanzees are in the list of endangered species, and their biggest threat is loss of habitat, diseases, and poaching.
Fossils reported from Kenya show that members of pan clade and humans were both present during the middle Pleistocene in rift valley east Africa. The DNA of chimpanzees and human has a significant similarity. And specific genes in the human lineage have been proven to have undergone rapid evolution. Chimpanzees have longer arms than legs and are adapted to grasping (Wessling, Erin G., et al.). The head of a chimpanzee is rounded and has a prognathous face with a prominent brow ridge. Their bodies are covered with coarse hair except for the palms, soles, fingers, face, and toes. Chimpanzees are both terrestrial and arboreal locomotors. They are a highly adaptable species meaning they can live in different habitats like montane forests, dry savannah, swamp forests, evergreen rainforests, and dry woodland-savannah mosaics. Chimpanzees are omnivorous frugivores, and they prefer fruits but still eat pith, seeds, leaves, leaf buds, blossoms, bark, and resin.
The chimpanzee also feeds on insects, soil, honey, medium-sized to small mammals, birds, and eggs (Wessling, Erin G., et al.). The life span is less than 15 years, and on rare occasions, some can go up to 60 years old. Chimpanzees who live in captivity tend to have a longer lifespan than those in the wild. Remote microphones, drones, and cameras trap to monitor and record chimpanzees because human observers influence chimpanzee behaviors. Chimpanzees communicate using postures, sounds, and facial expressions. They also use vocalization when needed. Chimpanzees are said to be more intelligent and display signs of culture in their various groups. Several attempts have been tech chimpanzees human language, and some have been successful (Wessling, Erin G., et al.). The strength and aggression of chimpanzees make it hard for them to be kept as pets, but exotic pet traders still indulge in trading them, leading to attacks by the chimpanzees, which causes injuries or even death.
Bonobo (pan paniscus)
Bonobo is an endangered great ape and has historically been called the pygmy chimpanzee. Bonobo and common chimpanzee are the two species that make up the genus pan. The two species are at times collectively referred to as chimpanzees. The bonobo has a distinctive dark face, long legs, long hair parted on its head, pink lips, and tail-tuft throughout its adulthood. The bonobo is frugivorous and mostly lives in secondary and primary forests, including seasonal swamp forests. Not many observations have been made on bonobos in their natural habitats because of their timidity and the regions political instability. The bonobo is a close extant relative to humans, just like the common chimpanzee (Wessling, Erin G., et al.). This species is endangered and faces a threat of habitat destruction due to human movement and population growth. The bonobo can live up to 40 years in captivity, but its lifespan in the wild is not yet confirmed.
Bonobos and chimpanzees are humans closest relatives, and a biologist suggested that bonobos might be an existing example of our human ancestors. According to Gary Clark, an anthropologist, our distant human ancestors passed through a bonobo-like phase, which featured reduced aggression (Yanai, Itai, et al.). Bonobos are arboreal and terrestrial, and their physical characteristics give them an appearance and posture that has a close resemblance to that of humans. They are frugivore omnivorous, and they mostly prefer fruits. They also eat eggs, honey, meat, and leaves. Bonobos are currently found in the north of Kasai River and south of Congo River only.
Ardipithecus ramidus
Ardipithecus ramidus lived about 4.4 million years ago in eastern Africa. It was first reported in 1994, and in 2009 an announcement of its partial skeleton was made (Yanai, Itai, et al.). The skeleton showed foot bones with divergent big toe with a rigid foot, and its meaning is still unclear. The pelvis, after reconstruction, showed tree-climbing adaptations and bipedal activity. The fossils of Ardi were found with faunal remains, which indicates that her habitat was a wooden environment. Ardipithecus ramidus had medium-sized enamel, suggesting that the individuals took a mixed diet (Yanai, Itai, et al.). The diverse diet includes fruits, meat, and plants. Still, the size of their incisors shows that the Ardipithecus ramidus was not specialized in fruit-eating and avoided tough food because they never had specialization in heavy chewing. Ardipithecus is the oldest skeleton of human ancestors that has been discovered.
The brain size of Ardipithecus ramidus is about 300-350cc and has ape-like body shapes. The features of its fossils showed that it could walk in an upright manner and still climb trees efficiently. The dentition of Ardipithecus ramidus is ape-like and has fewer projecting canines but is relatively large (Yanai, Itai, et al.). It had a small vertical face and the skull indicated that the species was bipedal because it rested on the spinal column. In addition, it had a short from front to back cranial base. From the plant and animal fossils found alongside Ardi, it became evident that this species lived in relatively moist and heavily forested woodland.
Australopithecus afarensis
The above form is an extinct species that lived 2.9 to 3.9 million years ago. They lived in east Africas Pliocene, a species of australopithecine (Gunz, Philipp, et al.). In the 1930s, the first fossils were discovered, and later in the 1970s, significant fossils were found. We believe that A.afarensis is a descendant of A. anamensis and presumed to have led to the rise of Homo though its still being debated. A. afarensis had a delicate brow ridge, a tall face, and prognathism. An adult male is estimated to have been 165 cm and weighed 45kg. The female is also said to have been 105 cm and weighed 25-37 kg. A. afarensis is believed to have been a generalist omnivore of both savanna plants and forest plants. The species did not have a preferred habitat because it occupied a wide range of habitats (Gunz, Philipp, et al.). The technique used to date this species is isochron burial dating which uses radioisotopes in rock samples around the fossil. The methods got an approximate date when the fossils and rocks were initially buried underground.
Homo habilis
The species is extinct and is of archaic humans from the south and east Africa early Pleistocene (Yanai, Itai, et al.). As more discoveries were made concerning the species, it was proposed that Homo habilis was a human ancestor, and it evolved directly into homo rectus. It is believed to have lived 1.65-2.3 million years ago and is associated with the Oldowan stone-tool industry because of its mental skillfulness. The brain size of Homo habilis ranged between 500-900cc and had an expanded cerebrum. The tooth rows of the species were v-shaped, and the mouth was prognathic. Homo habilis had long limbs which showed adaptation to swinging and climbing. It is believed that H. habilis scavenged for meat instead of hunting, and they also ate fruits which is evident from the dental erosion in the fossils (Yanai, Itai, et al.). From the average dental microwear texture, it is believed that they rarely consumed tough food but were of omnivorous and generalized diet.
African Homo erectus
The species used more advanced tools and is estimated to have lived 1.9 to 1.4 million years ago. Most of its fossils have been from Africa (Tobias, Phillip Vallentine, and Rightmire, G. Philip). The species is believed to have walked upright and had a low braincase with a receded forehead. It had a broad palate, jaws, and nose and large teeth, and a tiny brain. Paleoanthropologists used a technique called potassium-argon dating to get the age of Homo erectus. The species had a massively constructed face with a flattened forehead and deep and robust lower jaw that lacked chin development. It also had large teeth. H. Erectus are associated with tools like scrapers and hand axes that were doubled-edged and found alongside their fossils. The species is associated with the early Acheulean industry because of the stone tools. Because of their increased brain size, the African Homo erectus were associated with a meatier diet (Tobias, Phillip Vallentine, and Rightmire, G. Philip). It is also believed that they were the first hunters and gatherers.
Homo heldelbergensis
The species is extinct and existed in the middle Pleistocene time. It evolved from an African form of Homo erectus. The brain size was 1200cc, and it had a robust overall body with a broad chest (Yanai, Itai, et al.). They are part of the late Acheulian technology because of their increased intelligence. Its first discovery was made in the southeast of Heidelberg in 1907. This species is believed to be a descendant of African Homo erectus. The face of this species was a more human-like modern structure and had an increasing size of the brain. They had a spine that extended downwards, and the underside of the skull had an articular tubercle. The limb bones and postcranial remains discovery was a failure, thus obscuring trends in body size. Their essential dietary component was meat, but they also ate plants, nuts, berries, and seasonally available plants. There is evidence of fire in their time, but it was scarce (Tobias, Phillip Vallentine, and Rightmire, G. Philip). These species were also associated with hafting technology because of some spear fragments that were discovered.
Denisovans
Denisovans are extinct species of archaic humans. Most of the information about Denisovans came from DNA tests. Denisovans first identification was made using DNA extracted from a finger bone of a juvenile female found in Denisova cave (Yanai, Itai, et al.). The identification was complete in 2010, and the DNA showed close accordance with Neanderlands. The specimen found in the caves dated 30-50,000 years ago. There is evidence of interbreeding of Denisovans and Neanderthals, which happened on many occasions. Denisovans differ with with modern humans by 385 bases while Neanderthals differ by 202 bases.
Neanderthals biological and cultural patterns
Neanderthals are known for hunting and making tools from stones, and they managed to survive in the multiple ice ages (Strauss, Bob). Their features showed that they were adaptable to the cold areas. And They were intelligent and excellent at hunting. The species mastered and regularly used Levallois technology. They retouched flake tools and called them Mousterian.
Early modern Homo sapiens
Early modern humans are the only extant hominin species. They made various tools that resembled those made by Neanderthals (Strauss, Bob). As years went by, the early modern human started producing different kinds of tools and artifacts that had to go into the upper Paleolithic stage. They practiced game hunting, fishing, and gathering vegetable foods as their subsistence strategy. They used blade flakes to make upper Paleolithic stone tool forms, and the process enabled them to have knives, spear tips, burins, awls, drills, and hide scrapers.
Modern humans of the 21st century
Diet- the various antioxidants, vitamins, saturated fats, sugar, and minerals present in the food we take determine how our natural skin looks. For healthy and long-lasting skin, we need to make more nutritious foods (Jablonski, Nina). Eating a healthy diet assures one of long life and disease-free. The functioning of our bodies depends on the diet we take. Sleep- Our minds and bodies need to rest, and that is why sleep is essential for everyone. Without enough sleep, the body and mind become tired and inactive (Jablonski, Nina). Exercise-Our bodies need exercise to be strong and healthy (Bryanhealth.Com, 2021). Exercising regularly keeps one fit and disease-free and also lives longer. The more we exercise the more our bodies cool down through sweating.
Leisure time activities- We should ensure that the activities that we indulge in for leisure are suitable for the mind and our bodies (Bryanhealth.Com, 2021). Such actions should positively impact the mind and our physical self. Mental and physical wellness strategies-Every individual should worry about their mental and physical wellness, not only those with mental issues or body disorders (Bryanhealth.Com, 2021). To be mentally and physically fit, one should exercise, sleep well, take nutrient-rich food, have an excellent community relation, and have time to relax and recreate. For the body and its systems to function well the mental and physical aspect should be fit.
Works Cited
Gunz, Philipp, et al. Australopithecus afarensis endocasts suggest ape-like brain organization and prolonged brain growth. Science Advances 6.14 (2020): eaaz4729.
Jablonski, Nina. The Real Skin in The Game: The History of Naked, Sweaty, and Colorful Skin in the Human Lineage | Berkeley Graduate Lectures. Gradlectures.Berkeley.Edu, 2021, Web.
Leakey, R E et al. Morphology of Afropithecus turkanensis from Kenya. American journal of physical anthropology vol. 76,3 (1988): 289-307.
Lieberman, Daniel. Scholar.Harvard.Edu, 2021, Web.
Simons, Elwyn L., and David R. Pilbeam. Hominoid paleoclimatology. The functional and evolutionary biology of primates. Routledge, 2017. 36-62.
Strauss, Bob. Proconsul Facts and Figures. ThoughtCo, 2020, Web.
Tobias, Phillip Vallentine, and Rightmire, G. Philip. Homo erectus. Encyclopedia Britannica, Web.
5 Simple Way to Improve Your Physical and Mental Wellness . Bryanhealth.Com, 2021, Web.
Wessling, Erin G., et al. Chimpanzee (Pan Troglodytes) density and environmental gradients at their biogeographical range edge. International Journal of Primatology 41.6 (2020): 822-848.
Yanai, Itai, et al. The genetic basis of tail-loss and evolution in humans and apes. (2021).
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