Translanguaging in Second Language Acquisition

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Name of study	Research question/purpose	Research design	Sampling	Data collection methods	Data analysis and results	Quality of study and summary. Reason for rating
Using University students L1 as a resource: Translanguaging in a Puerto Rican ESL classroom.	The study determines the effectiveness of employing two languages, Spanish and English for teaching a novel to university students in Puerto Rico, a setting where English is learned as a second language.	Qualitative: observation and interviews.	29 university students enrolled in INGL 3101 Basic English 1 at UPRM.	Field notes of participant observation were collected by instructor after each class for a month. Audio-recorded focus group interviews.	Responses from class activities and interviews were analyzed to ascertain whether using both languages enhanced comprehension of the novel. It was found that students L1 was useful in maximizing understanding of material in the L2.	Theory: moderate. Literature review does not capture enough basis for the research. Sampling: moderate. Participants should have been more than 29 to have a more concrete outcome towards transferability. Data collection: moderate. It fails to involve some critical tenets of translanguaging as writing and or writing.

Effects of translanguaging as an intervention strategy in a South African chemistry classroom.

How does language affect academic performance of tenth-grade chemistry learners?
To what extent can Sesotho to be used as a medium of instruction in the tutelage of chemistry to tenth graders?

Mixed methods: qualitative through interviews and quantitative through experimental and control group tests.

Random:30 tenth graders from two science classes. N=18 girls n=12 boys

English language proficiency test administered to students and a chemistry pre-test assigned to both control and experimental groups and that latter allowed to use the native language during lessons.
Recorded interviews after activities.

Qualitative data was analyzed through inductive and deductive approach.
Quantitative data analysis by using descriptive statistics to draw conclusion between two variables with language being the independent variable while students academic performance, the dependent variable.
It was established that language, for that matter, translanguaging has an impact on the study of science.

Theory: strong. Multilingualism being an assert that propels people to utilize all resources of the various languages to achieve comprehension in a target language was vividly explained.
Sampling: strong. The randomness and the balance in gender does avoid biases.
Data collection: strong. The two tests as well as the interviews give help in providing answers to the research questions.

Developing morphological awareness across languages: Translanguaging pedagogies in third language acquisition.

Do translanguaging pedagogies across three languages influence students morphological awareness?
Do translanguaging pedagogies across three languages influence students perception of their multilingual repertoire?

Mixed method: qualitative and quantitative. Questionnaire and writing tasks.

104 multilingual students in the 5^thand 6^thyears. 51.9%-Spanish speakers
26.9%-Basque speakers
21.9%-speakers of both Spanish and Basque.

Participants grouped into experimental and control groups.
Oral and written language mainly on vocabulary and discourse. Participants were made to read in English and find matching cognates in Spanish and Basque. They completed questionnaire on the use of the three languages at the same time. Additionally, there were focus group discussion and interviews.

Quantitative: covariance (Ancova)
Qualitative: focus group discussion and interview analysis.

Theory: The concept of three languages instead of two in the same space at the same time is relatively new and opens a new chapter of English as a third language.
Sampling: strong. The number is representative enough to positively affect transferability.
Data collection: Both methods of research had equal share of activities to be analyzed.

Incorporating translanguaging in language assessment: The case of a test for university professors.

The study examines the use of French and English to assess university teachers in Canada.

Quantitative: testing, assessment and survey.

N=14 bilingual university instructors/professors from 3 Canadian institutions
N=12 faculty deans and other hiring decision-makers.

Participants took tests on comprehension and vocabulary.
A survey in respect of the use of two languages was conducted among deans of schools.

Tests were scored and results tabulated. Instances of translanguaging were evaluated ana tabulated as well. Same was done for the surveys from deans and professors. Experiences of a two-language test varied among them, but the general feeling was positive.

Theory: moderate. The concept of a two-language testing and assessment was not well explained and appears confusing.
Sampling: moderate. Considering the alien nature of the concept, participants should have been more than the number for a thorough assessment.
Data collection: moderate. Again, the surveys are not representative enough for thorough analysis.

Perceptions of higher education faculty members on bilingual education in Turkey.

Examining the perceptions and attitudes of university teachers in Turkey towards the use of several languages for teaching and learning.

Quantitative: Questionnaire

N=3420 academics in 74 universities but only n=208 completed questionnaires. Out of that number, n=108 males and n=100 females

A survey on perceptions of using two or more languages for academic work was sent via email.

Bilingual perception scale analysis in tabula forms.
An overwhelming number had a very positive attitude and acceptance of bilingual education in Turkey

Theory: strong. The article makes a solid argument with happenings across the world, espousing the benefits of bilingual education.
Sampling: moderate. Initial number of over 3000 was way too huge for a quantitative study.
Data collection: Too long and people may not take time to read through and that may have affected reliability.

Introduction

The Multilingual World

The foundational principle for the successful outcome in the development of any field is that field avoiding stagnation. With the acceleration of processes related to utterly different, and often quite distant spheres of human activity from technological and scientific advancements to cultural and linguistic diversification, it has gained importance. Only recently the evolving situation in the linguistic domain of the worlds population has been exposed to some form of recognition from the professionals whose work is directly related to the cross-cultural communication. For the most part, these educators are the ones responsible for the next generation working in their profession which is of high social significance and therefore, are required to evolve according to the social changes.

In order to understand the purpose of the current literature review, a closer inspection of the specificity of these changes is needed. It is reflected in Garcia & Wei, todays global village has become more culturally and linguistically diverse with the majority of students receiving education in a language other than their own (as cited in Charamba & Zano, 2019, p. 4). Due to the influence of colonial times, which is particularly substantial in the countries of the developing world, many children are the segregation between the language of the instruction and the language(s) they use to communicate with their peers and family members. As Carroll & Morales (2016) note, as instructors and researchers, we recognize that our students come into the classroom with rich linguistic repertoires that are not always acknowledged (p. 249). As a result, for reasons that will be discussed further in this paper, large quantities of students experience major drawbacks in their academic performance.

In contrast to the official policymaking practices, there has been recorded a growing need for an alternative method of teaching. This fact only reassures the gap between the methods which educational facilities employ and the needs of the population. Bilingual and multilingual education has been sparking controversy mainly for political reasons (Ilhan & Aydin, 2015). The concept of translanguaging was originally developed in Wales in 1996, where the issue of children speaking different languages in official and informal setting is particularly pronounced (Williams as cited in Hoffman, 2017). Nowadays, translanguaging approaches are used worldwide, and they have raised questions about the utility value of the traditional method of teaching (Carroll & Morales, 2016). The term itself encompasses several shades of meaning, however, in the current study it will be used in the context of a pedagogical strategy. Translanguaging method allows for educators and students to use the entirety of their linguistic and semiotic resources (Carroll & Morales, 2016, p. 251). Despite the fact that translanguaging was proven to aid in learning of bilinguals, there still an ongoing debate of whether or not the strategy is useful.

Problem Statement

The efficacy of the translanguaging method has received positive feedback from students and educators alike. However, on the administrative level translanguaging is still perceived as part of an experimental teaching strategy and not as an established pedagogic system. This situation is problematic, as large quantities of bilingual individuals are struggling with their language of instruction English for most parts of the world, as they do not have deep comprehension of its grammar and lexicon. This failure in discernment of scientific concepts worded in English has a direct link with poorer academic performance. Additionally, bilingual and multilingual students are forced into a monolingual thinking model; a tactic that only furthers the decline in their linguistic potential.

Review of Literature

There is a sufficient body of research done on the subject of translanguaging and applied translanguaging techniques in the educational framework. Translanguaging was utilized in a variety of settings and assisted in a number of purposes. To picture the scope of usage of translanguaging methods, a qualitative study by Hoffman et al. (2017) can be evaluated. The study records the results of using translanguaging in an educational setting with deaf adult bilinguals, who are accessed on their metalinguistic processes and reading strategies that they employ (p. 1929). The study aims to cover the gap of research in Deaf education and reading studies that only focused on deficit models and comparing deaf students with monolingual hearing ones (Hoffman et al, 2017). As noted here, translanguaging is a majorly useful tool for language learning, but can be used just as successfully with content learning (Hoffman et al, 2017). The same principle is illuminated in another study, which is concerned with implementing translanguaging in the context of 10^th grade Chemistry class in a South African school (Charamba & Zano, 2019). Regardless of the difference between the setting, the results are overall positive.

The multifunctional nature of translanguaging is not a thoroughly studied topic, although the translinguistic method has proven to be a highly adaptable and versatile system. According to Carroll & Morales (2016), the term can be understood differently as a language theory implying the normality of bilingualism, and as a transformational process that constantly reinvents the meaning-making (p. 251). However, the most relevant definition for current research is a pedagogic stance aimed at drawing out linguistic and semiotic resources which is what the current review is declares as one of its core interests (Carroll & Morales, 2016, p. 251). The said study focuses its attention quite narrowly, on an English as a Second Language (ESL) course, and in that way, employs translanguaging in its traditional sense.

The study is particularly concerned with estimating the efficacy of the method particularly in an inherently bilingual setting, Puerto Rico. The researchers aim to utilize the full linguistic repertoire that the children possess while also testing whether or not translanguaging educational strategies affect the students academic performance in a positive manner (Carroll & Morales, 2016, p. 249). Additionally, the translanguaging approach was implemented to increase student participation and provide a meaningful literacy experience with the assigned novel that they discussed in literature circles (Carroll & Morales, 2016, p. 255). As a result of this intervention, by allowing students to express themselves in a language that they felt the most comfortable using, a greater degree of comprehension of the text was accomplished (Carroll & Morales, 2016). Thus, it can be noted that the mother tongue is significantly better transmitting the meaning of ideas to a bilingual speaker is true.

In another study conducted against a multilingual background, taking place in Turkey, a similar approach was applied. Ilhan & Aydin (2015), agree with the majority of a priori research that emphasized that forcing minority language children to make a transition too soon towards being educated in a new language can be detrimental to their learning process (p. 147). In the process of conducting a Bilingual Education Perception survey among the educators, it was established that the majority of academics agree that the situation in Turkey educational system is insufficient and needs to change (Ilhan & Aydin, 2015). Thus, the faculty members believe that students should not be treated differently because of their ethnic background, which is exactly the case (Ilhan & Aydin, 2015, p. 152). The needs of ethnic minority groups in regards to the language of instruction are principally ignored; as a result, the academic performance and overall quality of education they receive. The students from minority groups are underachieving because they fail to comprehend the language of the instruction as well as they can understand their first language.

The same dynamic is also identifiable in a study by Charamna & Zano (2019), which aims to determine whether the translanguaging approach will improve students performance in a science classroom. In a similar way to their Puerto Rican counterparts, the students were struggling in comprehension of the tasks when they are worded in English, which resulted in a handicap of their intellectual capacities and thus, the students exhibited poorer performance. At the end of the intervention, the students gave interviews which reflected the positive impact of translanguaging pedagogy methods in chemistry class. The findings of the South African study is somewhat accordant with Leonet et al. (2019) study on the subject of applying translanguaging to increasing morphological awareness. Once again, the principle of cross-linguistic instruction, as is traditional in translanguaging pedagogies is exemplified here; although, the study does show some insufficiency of the method some of the tasks implemented did not relate specifically to the translanguaging intervention. As is the case with Hoffman et al. study, the participants clearly emphasized their preference towards the employment of translanguaging rather than studying according to the monolingual-centered curriculum.

It is noteworthy that not only students of various faculties become translanguaging intervention participants, but professors do, too. This particular study by Baker & Hope (2019) is of great interest because it involved assessment in proficiency of one of the two language bilingual professors spoke using translanguaging techniques. This can be considered an unconventional way of using translanguaging, however, it plays well along with the aims of the current literature review and significantly contributes to the set of practices of translanguaging.

Purpose, Hypothesis and Research Questions

The primary purpose of the current review is to assess the state-of-the-art translanguaging educational practices applied in secondary language acquisition and understand their nature as well as the extent to which they are applied. Secondly, the review aims to gain a deeper understanding of the potential that the translanguaging method encompasses, such as being used beyond the purposes it was specifically designed for. A broader purpose of this review beyond assessment of publications was increasing popularity of translanguaging among the general public and in particular among the faculty members. The notion that translanguaging method is highly impactful on the outcome of learning a secondary language among bilinguals, but is not limited by this sole purpose and can be used in assistance with a variety of subjects, serves as the hypothesis for this study. The research questions are as follows:

How widely translanguaging is used for teaching a foreign language in multilingual communities around the world?
What are the main variations in application of the translanguaging theory? What are the traditional methods and how educators can innovate it for the benefit of a more effective learning?

Data Collection

All the data used in the present literature review was obtained through Google Scholar, which led to corresponding databases of peer-reviewed journals and standalone articles. After conducting a search through the databases, the 6 key articles used in the current review were selected. The articles were chosen on the basis of a) being about a translanguaging method in education, b) complimenting the others in terms of being original in the application of the method. As a result, the articles were studied, analyzed, and synthetized in the present study.

Data Analysis and Results

In the process of the present review, a few key concepts were distilled that possess a great relevance to the concept and practice of translanguaging. First, it was established that bilingual participants were eager to utilize their full linguistic repertoire when put into settings encouraging it. (Baker & Hope, 2019; Hoffman et al., 2017; Charamba & Zano, 2019). The majority of participants, from university professors and bilingual students to deaf bilinguals, felt it was beneficial for their reception of information and provided them with a chance of enhanced self-expression. As could be seen in a Leonet et al. study, translanguaging not only influenced better comprehension, that was could an expectable outcome, but also greatly assisted in the development of cross-lingual morphological awareness (2019). For ensuring the homogeneity in perception towards translanguaging, a number of perspectives, from both the educators and the students was obtained (Ilhan & Aydin, 2015; Charamba & Zano, 2019). Thus, the translinguistic method proved to be highly effective in learning a secondary foreign language as well as content-learning.

Writing and Organization of the Articles

The majority of research papers analyzed followed a fairly standard organizational template, however, some exhibited a number of distinct features. For instance, Hoffman et al. study included descriptions of the processes that could be considered extensive, however, they contributed to a deeper understanding of the research process, despite not being strictly necessary for instance, the entire section on Coding and Narrative (2017, p. 1937). Ilhan & Aydin (2015) study lacked proper structure and exhibited a small amount of spelling mistakes an example would be compiling discussion and conclusion sections into one. One the contrary, Carroll et al. exhibited clear structure and other articles did the same.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The current literature review demonstrates the scope of usage and the range of particular techniques of translanguaging when applied within bilingual settings, particular circumstances of which vary greatly depending on the countrys educational policy. However, in every case, ranging from the assessment of faculty members on their bilingual capacity and conducting tests in chemistry class for 10^th grade students to enriching the learning experience of deaf individuals, it was always effective. Thus, the hypothesis of this review was confirmed; translanguaging has a significant positive effect on the outcome of learning a secondary language, and as a matter of fact, goes beyond that. In terms of recommendation, future research could be directed to studying translanguaging implications conducted under different circumstances, for instance, in mixed environments involving both monolingual and bilingual participants.

Action Research Study

Ideas for future research on the basis of this literature review could include expanding the present set of practices that translanguaging implies. For instance, there is a significant gap in understanding how translanguaging can work at larger scale, as most samples consisted of quite limited amounts. Another very important gap that future researchers must address is tailoring translanguaging techniques to specific circumstances, like working with the languages of deaf and blind people or a an ethnic group that lacks certain vocabulary present in other language. Additionally, it would be useful conducting studies that would focus on the perception of parents and caretakers, whose children are subject to translanguaging at an educational faculty.

References

Andrews, J., Clark, D., Hoffman, D., and Wolsey, J. (2017). Translanguaging supports reading with deaf adult bilinguals: A qualitative approach. The Qualitative Report, 22(7), pp. 1925-1944.

Aydin, H., & Ilhan, D. (2015). Perceptions of higher education faculty members on bilingual education in Turkey. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 3(3), pp. 146-155.

Baker, B., & Hope, A. (2019). Incorporating Translanguaging in language assessment: The case of a test for university professors. Language Assessment Quarterly, 16(4-5), pp. 408-452

Carroll, K.S., & Sambolin Morales, A.N. (2016). Using University students L1 as a resource: Translanguaging in a Puerto Rican ESL classroom. Bilingual Research Journal, 39(3-4), pp. 248- 262

Cenoz, J., Gorter, D., & Leonet, O. (2020). Developing morphological awareness across languages: Translanguaging pedagogies in third language acquisition. Language Awareness, 29(1), pp. 41-59.

Charamba, E., & Zano, K. (2019). Effects of Translanguaging as an intervention strategy in a South African chemistry classroom. Bilingual Research Journal, 42(3), pp. 291-307

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