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Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994) was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst. He was one of Freud’s followers who expanded the picture of development at each stage. In his psychosocial theory, Erikson emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society (Berk & Meyers, 2015). Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages included: Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (birth- 1 year), Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 year), Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years), Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11years), Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence 13-19 years), Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early adulthood 20–39 years), Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood 40-59 years), and Integrity vs. Despair (Old age) (Berk & Meyers, 2015).
These theories have a significant impact on current practices in ECE. According to Erikson, at the first stage, children learn whether or not they can trust the world (Berk & Meyers, 2015). Children receive care from their caregivers to form trust, so the quality of the care is crucial in the forming of the child’s personality (Malone, Liu, Vaillant Rentz, & Waldinger, 2016). For this reason, caregivers need to attend to child’s needs quickly and be sensitive. For example, sometimes a baby gets some response from a caregiver by crying, so the caregiver needs to know the baby’s need while the baby is crying and respond fast. The baby may need food, changing diapers, or a warm cuddle. When a caregiver provides an appropriate response to a baby’s cries, a foundation of trust is built. When the baby’s needs are consistently satisfied, the baby will learn that he can trust the people who are caring for him. If these needs are not consistently met, the child will begin to mistrust the people around him or her. Children at the second stage want to decide for themselves, and they build a sense of control over themselves as well as some basic confidence in their own abilities (Berk & Meyers, 2015). Caregivers can provide opportunities for children to foster their independence by permitting children to make food, clothing, and toy choices and helping them stop worrying. Toilet training also takes on an important role; learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. In this stage, reassuring children and having faith in their abilities is important to the development of a sense of autonomy and confidence. The third stage occurs from ages 3 to 5. During this stage, children begin to affirm their power and control over the world by playing activities, completing tasks, and overcoming difficulties (Berk & Meyers, 2015). The main element is imagination. A sense of purpose develops when a child can envision something in her imagination and pursue it. These perceptions give kindergarten some idea. For instance, provide enough space for children to express their imagination by playing with natural materials and role-playing. Some daycares make circle time to read stories and sing a song that can stimulate children’s imagination. Hence, caregivers need to encourage exploration, help children make appropriate choices, provide opportunities and room to show their imagination and initiative.
Although Erikson’s theories have many influences and impacts on current practices in ECE, the first three stages are basic of all. Maria Montessori (1870-1952), a teacher and a doctor from Italy, is one of the forerunners of early childhood education. She established the Montessori educational method in 1907. It “aims at developing children’s senses, academic skills, practical life skills, and character- is the world’s oldest extant early childhood curriculum model and is used today by Montessori teachers throughout the world” (Lunenburg, 2000, p. 522). The Montessori educational methods were developed founded on five premises: “Respect for the child, The Absorbent Mind, The Sensitive period, The prepared environment, and Auto-education” (David, 2016). Each of the premises has greatly influenced the current practice of early childhood education.
Montessori believed that grownups fail to respect children because they give children information forcefully. According to Montessori, children should be given choices to make them learn independently. Children should learn by doing, rather than just receiving information. This hands-on learning experience motivates the child to learn (David, 2016). This “Respect for the child” premise supports Alberta’s Early Learning and Care Framework core concept of “the image of the child: a strong, resourceful, capable child—a mighty learner and citizen” (Makovichuk, Hewes, Lirette, & Thomas, 2014, p. 38). “The Absorbent Mind” is the sponge-like capacity of the child to absorb information from the environment. What they absorb depends on the type of environment they are exposed to (David, 2016). “The Sensitive period” is when the child is ready and interested to learn something at a certain time. During this period, teachers will “present demonstration lessons when a child shows readiness to advance in the sequence of self-correcting materials, in the areas of practical life, sensorial, mathematics, language, science and geography, and art and music” (Edwards, 2000). “The prepared environment” is the carefully arranged, pleasing surroundings and materials where children freely work by themselves or with a partner. Resources such as books and toys are of good quality and usually made from natural materials (David, 2016). Montessori designed educational materials that are still used to this day. The Montessori activities such as pouring, cleaning, and polishing in the practical life curriculum develop not only the child’s abilities to live independently, but also train the child’s motor control and eyehand coordination (Marshall, 2017). “Auto-education” is the children’s ability to teach themselves so that they can develop important life skills. This is possible within the prepared environment. The children will advance when they are ready, at their own pace (David, 2016).
In summary, the Montessori method is “designed to support the child’s intellectual, physical, emotional and social development through active exploration, choice, and independent learning” (Marshall, 2017, p.1). There are no grades given, and children are not competing with each other. This is contrary to traditional education, where the teacher is the main source of learning and information, and much emphasis is given on academics.
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was born on November 17, 1896, in Orsha, Russia. He died after a battle with tuberculosis at age 37. He began his career as an educator at the time of the Russian revolution. Vygotsky has become the foundation of research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades. He was best known for his social development theory or sociocultural theory. He believed that social interaction plays an important role in the development of children’s learning. These interactions include those with parents, brothers and sisters, teachers, playmates, and classmates. Vygotsky noted that culture influences this process and he placed more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development. He assumed cognitive development varies across cultures. Vygotsky placed considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development. He believed that the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about. According to Vygotsky, adults such as parents and educators are an important source of cognitive development (McLeod, 2014).
Vygotsky’s beliefs about children and education influenced the current practices in Early Childhood Education by using scaffolding as a method of teaching. Vygotsky’s scaffolding is a teaching method that helps children learn more by working with more knowledgeable others such as parents and educators to achieve their learning goals. The theory behind scaffolding is that educators or parents supply children with the tools they need to learn, and then slowly withdraw their assistance as children can do more on their own (Berk & Winsler, 1995). The children learn more when collaborating with others who are more knowledgeable or have a wider range of skills than them. These knowledgeable others are the scaffolding who help the children expand their learning boundaries and learn more compared to learning independently. Scaffolding is providing the children with support and guidance while they are learning new skills. As the children learn the skills, the support as their abilities develop will be lessened until they can do the new skills on their own. For example, if a child is trying to do a puzzle for the first time, the educator can demonstrate how to do it, and as the child learns to do the puzzle, the educator can let the child do it on his own. In scaffolding, the educator can also make suggestions if the child is having difficulty. For example, if a child is having trouble completing a puzzle, the educator could offer partial solutions like making suggestions that might help solve the problem while still encouraging the child to solve the problem on his own. Vygotsky’s scaffolding is part of the education concept zone of proximal development. The zone of proximal development is the set of skills or knowledge a child can’t do on her own but can do with the help or guidance of skillful others.
Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development is significant because it helps teachers understand the children’s development, so they can help the children make achievements on their own.
Moreover, Vygotsky also emphasized the role of language in cognitive development. He believed that cognitive development results from an internalization of language. He also believed that thought and language are separate systems from the beginning of life. Furthermore, settings for learning and detailed information are considered in terms of social interactions to support realistic settings and children’s opportunities to explore, direct their own learning, and work in collaboration with other children under the support and guidance of the educator (McLeod, 2014).
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