Overview of the Political, Religious, and Moral State of the Arabian Peninsula, the Roman, Byzantine and Persian Empires

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An Analysis of Selected World Cultures Before the Advent of Islam and the Major Impact of Islam of These Cultures

Introduction

This paper presents an overview of the political, religious, and moral state of the Arabian Peninsula, the Roman/Byzantine and Persian empires, and surrounding polities/cultural groups extant at the emergence of Islam. An analysis focusing on the period from the beginning of Prophethood and, thereafter, under the four righteous caliphates of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali with a mention of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. There will be a close examination of Islam’s impact on conquered civilizations during the emergence of Islam as a political/military force in the region.

Unanimously, historical records that deal with Islam’s emergence, indicate that Islam had a substantive effect on the cultures with which it came into contact either through dawah, trade, treaties, hijrah, or conquest.

Status of Civilizations Prior to Islam

Arabian Peninsula

Within the pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula, there was no central government. Rulers were of two kinds: 1) crowned kings were found in Yemen, Iraq/Hera and at Ghasam in Syria (also referred to as Shams), and 2) heads of tribes and clans. Both equal in authority within their own realms but the latter were mostly independent unlike the former. Due to geographically challenging mountainous and dessert terrain, the northern Arabian Peninsula was protected from the two major empires flanking it—the Roman and Persian Empires. Despite this protection from external forces, the Arabs were beseiged by inter-tribal warfare and fueds. Yemen, positioned in the south of the peninsula, was unlike its comrads to the north more vulnerable and was conquered twice by the Romans and Ethiopians in 340 AD-378 Ad and again in 525 AD.

Religious Conditions — Historically, the majority of the Arabs had professed the religion of Ibraheem (upon him be peace) for many centuries. However through time, key aspects of monotheism were distorted and idol worship (Hubal) was introduced to the Arabian peninsula by a revered and righteous chief of the Khusa’a named Amr bin Luhai, imitating the practice of the people Syria after a trip he took in BC. His actions began the spread of idol worship across Arabia leading to over 360 idols found in the Ka’aba at the time of the Prophet’s conquest of Makkah. Each person, household, and tribe had its own idol to whom they devoted themselves and for whom they made pilgrimage and sacrifice, and from whom they expected intercession, closeness to Allah, and the fulfilment of their needs and desires. Beyond the worship of idols, the religious practices of the Arabs in pre-Islamic times included divination by casting of Azlam (arrows/lots), belief in soothsayers, and astrologers. Other than the pagan Arabians, there existed those who practiced Judaism, Christianity, Magianism, and Sabianism.

Socio-Economic Conditions

The Arabian society was solidly patriarchal impacting the status and treatment of women, types of marriage and the existence of prostitution and in its extreme expression, the murdering of the female child. Arabs’ warped notion of family and view of the woman on the one hand expressed itself with woman of nobility having free will and being held in high esteem so much so that her male folk would defend her honor with bloodshed and even the common man would deeply cherish the women of his family. At the same time, men would hide or bury their daughters alive out of shame and/or fear of poverty. While marriage in some cases resembled present-day marriage, it was also part of their tradition 1) for a man to send his wife to cohabit with another man to conceive a child, 2) for a group of men to have sexual intercourse with one woman who would chose the father of her child from those men if she became impregnated, 3) a women would post a flag inviting men to her intimacy and reliance on a seeress to identify the father of her impending child [Abu Da‟ûd, on the authority of „Aishah(RA)]. These untenable practices, along with tribal pride stirred by drinking of intoxicants and gambling, led to on-going inter-tribal warfare and a weakening of the social fabric of the times.

On the whole, Arabian society was plaqued by poverty and a dearth of food and other daily resources as a result. Arabs on the peninsula pursued trade as the most common economic engine though farming and sheparding also existed. Women in the northern peninsula did some yarn spinning and other crafts and knitting was the main craft of those from Yemen Heera and Syra. there was some sort of farming and stock-breeding.

Ethics/Morals

Despite the troublesome aspects of the Arab social interactions, they were characterized by positive traits that were spawned by their simple, healthy Bedouin lifestyle. These included a sense of honour and self-respect, keeping the covenant, showing hospitality to the guest, treating others with tolerance and mildness, displaying diligence and tenacity, and not being contaminated [image: ]by a duplicitous nature.

Roman/Byzantine Empire

The Roman/Byzantine Empire prior to the advent of Islam was focused on their military/political agenda. At that time, the empire was a functional monarchy under the rule of Emperor Heraclius and was on a decline it is historical power. Northwest of the Arabian Peninsula, it circled the Mediterranean Sea and comprised portions of North Africa (from Egypt to Tunis), Italy, Greece, Mesopotamia, Armenia along with the accompanying sea islands of Sicily, Cyprus and Crete. An important subject of the Empire was Syria due to its trade routes. The Roman Empire had a heterogeneous polity and exercised economic oppression over those it ruled. Their prime political rival was the Persian Empire with whom they had been engaged in ongoing wars for millennia (700 years?).

Christianity was the state religion, however even within this majority religion there was internal strife between those who believed in One God (Chaldean Chistians) and those who believed in the trinity. Conflicting ideologies resulted in slaughter, murder, flaying, drowning, rape and pillage as a means of conversion.

The Roman/Byzantine Empire sustained a class system whose upper class practiced extravagant behavior and lived in luxury. The elite was comprised of the emperor, the wealthy and landowners. The middle class consisted of merchants, artisans , government employees and skilled workers; these had a degree of upward mobility within their class. Slaves and other laborers made up the lower class and were exploited by their wealthy masters. The wealthy ate meals (including meat dishes) and frequented elaborate social events and well-appointed bathing houses, the poor ate simple foods including fish, nuts, bread, eggs legumes olives milk cheese and fruit. All classes engaged in wine and gambling. and while There were violent sporting events, riots over unfair taxation and suffering under the brutality of ruthless leaders. As the age of Islam approached, the empire was on the decline as a result of horrific plagues, the weariness of ongoing war and the instability of exchanging one ruling power (Rome) for another (Persia).

Persian/Sassanid Empire

The Persian Empire was the second major power extant at the emergence of Islam. It was situated on the northeast border of the Arabian Peninsula. An ancient society, Persia ruled over an impressive empire comprised of Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Armenia and Central Asia, Afghanistan, and parts of Pakistan. northwest to the Caspian Sea, east to the border of Turkistan, south to the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, as well as exchanging dominance of Syria with the Roman Empire. As the Muslims’ strength and renown in the region grew, the Persian Empire faced an unprecedented decline in its political, social and economic systems due to hundreds of years of military conflict with the Roman Empire coupled with emergent civil wars after the execution of the King Chosroe II in 628.

Zorastrianism was the dominant religion of the empire. It was a dualistic faith where adherents believed in One God, Ahura Mazda the creator of all good who was alone worthy of worship. However, they also attributed evil to another powerful being, Angra Mainyu, rendering the faith polytheism through the commission of Shirk ar-Ruboobiya. .

In addition to Persia being a formidable military force at its height, culturally it was a center of refinement. Persian Empire had attained the largest population in the world at the time. The populace was skilled in architecture, engineering, irrigation and waterworks, canal building, intricate gardens, metal work, carpet weaving and the literary arts. Beyond an internal, the empire transfered its knowledge, culture and trade beyond its own massive borders through its impressive development of its roadways and maritime trade. It was built upon a class system [four levels of nobility, followed by priests, warriors, husbandmen, and artisans].

Bibliography

Islam, S. (2016, July 27). SlideShare. Retrieved July 1, 2018, from Timeline of the caliphate in history: www.slideshare.net/SaajidIslam/the-timeline-of-the-caliphate-in-history/9

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