Coping With Disabled Individuals

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Table of Contents

Introduction
Literature Review
Methodology
Research Findings
Discussion
Analysis
Conclusion
Reference List
Footnotes

Introduction

The paper aims to study the reactions to disabled people in the families after they are disabled in different societies. It also covers the aspects that are related to the responses of adults and colleagues to the disabled children in families of different societies. As the disability of a person in a family affects the whole family, the extent the families of different society feel about their disabled person is important.

The effect of disability on remaining family members and their response to individual and the society is important. The effect of culture, religion and society’s norms on the responses and behaviour of the family members of disabled individual will be studied according to the research of different individuals who are disabled and the people who live with them. The facilities they are getting from the society and the reasons for resorting to god are the aspects that got perusal in this paper. Moreover, families of disabled individuals from three different societies; Africa (Ghana), Caucasian and Asian are observed for the way they look after the disabled people in the family.

The effect of religion and the reasons for turning towards or not resorting to religion is part of discussion and analysis. In case of Caucasian background society, Burke, Peter (2003, pp-11-12) quotes about Atkinson and Crawford (1995) that 80 percent of children with disabilities have non disabled siblings. However, the paper concentrates on variable levels of social disability though the individuals have same level of physical disability. The experiences in the school for children and with peers for adults are taken into consideration for examination. The way that indicates the perspectives regarding some types of disabilities as symbols of wickedness in some societies are observed and are compared with the present practical situation in different societies (Burke, Peter, 2003 Page 11).¹

Literature Review

Disabilities in Different Societies

As consideration of responses of family members as well as the society towards the disabled people is important in this paper, it is appropriate to quote the United Nations special unit on the rights and dignities of persons living with disabilities. This is because different societies are having different numbers and percentage of disabled persons in their population. Hence, the treatment meted out to them in those societies and the actions that are taken to avoid the disabilities like Down syndrome is also important. Hence, according to concept of the paper, it is important to consider the disabled persons in different societies.

According to report by Heidari, Shirin, and Susan Kippax (2009, pp-1), 650 million people worldwide are living with mental and physical disabilities. Most of them are suffering with mental and social as well as medical disabilities. The suffering of social and medical disabilities is due to the lukewarm response of administrations and society towards the families of disabled persons and disabled persons themselves. As a result it is important to study the treatment that is necessary for the disabled persons as their human right and one can examine whether that is being violated on the name of norms, culture or religion.

The review of literature regarding the access of rights of disabled persons in different societies can give a good scope for research. Hence, non discrimination as well as full participation and accessibility with equal opportunity should be the norms for the examination of the treatment meted out to disabled persons in different societies in this paper. In this context, Shiring and Kippax (2009, pp-2) write that in some societies, the lack of adequate efforts is cause suffering for disabled persons. Hence, they reveal that United Nations organizations state that more efforts are necessary to for having focused efforts to treat disabled persons so that they enjoy equal opportunities as well as accessibility to societal activities.²

Burke Peter (2003, pp-12), quotes some text about Richard III in Shakespeare’s play that conveys badness associated with an individual who has twisted humped back. Hence, it can be understood that the Caucasian society has inherently accepted some types of disability as the symbols for wickedness. Hence, it is clear that the element of ‘bad’ and ‘disabled’ is part of a stereotypical view of some societies. The above aspect is part of social construct that may extract their responses from religious understanding. As a result it may result in a family feeling isolated when the social encounters of the family members emphasize the view that the disabled person is not worthy. ³

While considering the parents having children with disabilities and illnesses, it has been revealed that parents are spending high on them. To make them unable to cope up with daily activities as well as with indifference from peers and society, they concentrate on them more and that may result in an extra expenditure. In this context, the disabled children rule the roost as the parents have to change their plans according to needs of the children.

This is due to the fact that the parents are forced to work and spend with them despite being busy to entertain them, which they miss from their peers and in the school as well as in the society. In addition to that, parents felt that it is important to spend money as well as time with disabled children to enable them in coping with their tasks. While considering the expenditure of parents on goods and services, the majority of parents and their spending are on school going children. If the child is aged below 5 years, the spending is more and the expenditure is additional to food and other essential things. ⁴

Developmental Disabilities

After the spending and expenditure, it comes about dealing with the disabled children. One of the important disabilities that are not possible to all parents to deal with is about development disability. This requires family-centred practice in social work. However, this is different in various societies, as this profession has consistently emphasised the significance of providing family support that is capable of strengthening families. In the above context, Patrick Shannon (2004, pp-301) opines as follows. According to him, social workers are involved in early intervention services for families with children who are infants and toddlers that suffer with developmental delays.

The report and the article are based on Virginia, a state in United States of America; it can be considered as the study of mentally disabled persons in Caucasian majority society. Moreover, Shannon quotes Dunst & Deal, 1994; McGonigel, Kaufman, & Johnson, 1991) regarding the support given to the families about the making the decisions regarding the children facing development delays. Hence, Shannon (2004, pp-301) also quotes Beckman and Colleagues (1994) about family centered services that find the necessity of considering complexity within the families that contain the child having development delays.

Subsequently, Shannon (2004, pp-302) indicates the early interventions that include the services provided to families. The services comprise of education, health care, mental health and human services settings. He quotes Guralnick (1997) about empirical analyses quoted in the article. In the article it was mentioned that the families receiving services and interventions by professionals have issues regarding implementation. The issues are family-centred as the children are suffering developmental delays. This is known from the survey, which states that the parents and family members of the children having developmental delays opine that the professionals are not responding to their concerns. Hence, they are not finding enough support from the interventions of the professionals who offer assistance in dealing with children having development delays.

Consequently, the families which are receiving the above-mentioned services are demanding the need for several services from professionals that include better information as well as availability of services. In the above-mentioned condition, the families of disabled individuals are receiving support from the society in the form of assistance from the administration by offering family intervention services. However, even professionals also have doubts about the families about the necessary skills possessed by the members that can deal with the development delays in the children.

In this context, Shannon (2001- pp-302) quotes Able-Bonne, Goodwin, Sandall, Gordon & Martin, 1992; Dinnebeil & Rule, 1994) about the better services and coordination in helping the families regarding the skills in dealing with the children of development delays. In the course of the study, Snannon (2001, pp-304) found that the providers may also conceal the existence of other programs that are capable of meeting the needs of family as some sort of funding is linked to individual children. The reason is that the professionals who are offering the services feel that the funding created competition for families and reduced the likelihood of agencies referring families to other agencies. Hence, the system of referral as well as the early intervention programs should exist as independent agencies with a compulsion of rendering services to the needy families.

The important aspect that is affecting the above-mentioned services negatively is that the reports to child protective services have created an atmosphere of distrust between service providers and families as the families are afraid of letting the professionals into their homes. The reason is that they fear that these people may report them to CPS. Hence, it is evident that the parents are demanding the services of professionals for their children at home irrespective of the extent of the development delay they are facing. In other words, it can be understood that the parents are seeking individual care for their children who are facing disabilities regarding development delays.⁵

Intellectual Disability and its Implications

After the developmental disability the intellectual disability depends on the perceptions of individuals. As the perceptions of individuals and administrations towards intellectual disabilities may be different in various societies, it is important in this paper as it is about to consider the state of disabled persons in three different types of societies. Hence, the classification, diagnosis as well as appropriate interventions are touchstone for analysis and discussion. In the coming sections of analysis and discussion as well as the present section of literature review, the role of culture as well as religion on the treatment to intellectual disability will be reviewed.

In this context, Harris, James C (2005, Pp-14) terms intellectual disability as mental retardation, as it is an impairment of cognitive functioning and adaptive skills in the development period. Hence, he opines that it should be viewed as the developmental, intellectual as well as cognitive disability. In this context, it is suitable to review the religious beliefs towards the intellectual disability or mental retardation as the role of religion and culture are part of the consideration of this paper. In the above context James (2005, pp-344) states that in biblical times, there were edicts about acts about disability that offer insight into attitudes of the disabled people. In this context, he quotes the Old Testament injunction; “Thou Shalt not curse the deaf, put a stumbling back before the blind, nor maketh the blind wander out of a path”.

The above quote from the bible by James in his book states that the religion offers security and special treatment for disabled persons, from the side of society as well as family members. Religion has ruled that it is the duty of society and its people to enable the disabled people to live with dignity and required facility. James describes the above diktat from the bible as the first Western command to legislate for the protection of the deaf as well as disabled people. It also states that if the society does not follow the diktats that aid the disabled people, the individuals of it will succumb to some disabilities in the future. It states that the Lord will afflict the same disabilities in the people who ignore the disabled persons. Hence, it can be seen that the charities are present in Western societies to help the disabled people.

However, James quotes Rosen (1968) about the beliefs of ancient people who thought that the diseases and disabilities are imposed by a deity or supernatural power. According to it, the records that date back to 2000 BC, the birth of children with congenital ailments may predict the future of the community. Hence, the birth of disabled children was used for prophecy of the future of a community. Hence, disability in some societies was viewed as the augury of the things to come and seen as punishment for immorality. However, even in the above-mentioned context, it was told that the disabled should be treated with compassion.

However, in some societies, the belief that the disability is due to past wrong doings did not go well and it may find discussion in the further chapters. But in the present review, James (2005, pp-345) quotes The New Testament as insight of attitudes about disability evolved. He reminds about the act of Jesus regarding curing a blind man’s blindness as well as healing the people with paralysis, leprosy, epilepsy, mental illness and blindness. However, in the above context, Jesus states that it is neither sin of the disabled people nor their parents but it is the mechanism of God to reveal himself to the people by healing them.

With the above statement, Jesus tried to remove the belief that sins of individuals are the causes for the disabilities in different individuals. After that period, James talks about Middle Ages that believed the disability as the one that have demonological origins that may result in persecution of people with these disabilities. However, religion in Puritan New England treats disability as the goodness of the simple spirit humbled by affliction and mental retardation as spiritual desolation. However, in some European societies like Greece and Rome, the killings of newborns with congenital impairments existed as those societies perceived the birth of a child with anomalies as an indication of the anger of gods. Instead of reducing the anger of gods by treating that child with compassion, they tried to kill it to escape from that punishment.

However, even those societies offered pensions to the soldiers injured in the battle field and there were records of physically disabled persons working in different trades. Though at the time of Christ, the disability has been perceived as the one that can redeem opportunities for kind strangers, it has significant superstitious beliefs and causation also. However, it can be termed that the impairment was accepted as the course of life in Caucasian societies.⁶

Gender Discrimination and Cost Concerns Regarding Disabilities

Even in Caucasian majority society like United States of America, the secondary health conditions like environmental, structural and process related barriers prevent individuals from accessing a physician to take treatment for disability. In this context, Smith, Diane L., and Maribeth S. Ruiz (2009, pp-3) quote that, environmental barriers are regarding the lack of facilities at clinics and that may result in avoiding disabled persons from visiting the Physicians. In addition to that the structural barriers like lack of financial resources also relate to delivery of service as well as contemplating to get the service from the physicians.

Moreover, the lack of financial capability may also result in ignorance of service providers as provider attitude is not reasonable with the people having structural barriers. In the above context, Diane et al., (2009) quote Kennedy & Erb, 2002; Schultz, Shenkin, &Horowitz, 1998 about the serious problems like accessing prescription drugs (32 percent), dental care (29 percent), equipment (21 percent), mental health services (17 percent), and home care (16 percent) due to cost, which they cannot afford. In addition to that Diane (2009) quotes about the hurdle for physician services for women. This is because their health is poorer and preventive care is not at par for women without disabilities. ⁷

Social Context of and for Disabled Persons

Talking about Social Context of Disabled persons, Shannon, Cozetta D., Timothy N. Tansey, and Barbara Schoen (2009, pp-12) state that researchers have indicated that attitudes toward persons with disabilities are moderated based on social context and specific disability. In the above context Cozetta et al., (2009, pp-12) quote Antonak & Linnch, 1988; Grand, Bernier & Strohmer, 1982; Strohmer, Grand & Purcell, 1984; Hergenrather & Rhodes, 2007; Wong et al., 2004 about the significance of social context in development of attitudes towards disabled persons or individuals. The authors talk about the broadening of social contexts, which become more specific in their effects.

Hence, the effects of social contexts change time and again according to broadening of the contexts. However, the authors feel that the interactions between individuals who belong to various groups are capable of influencing the attitudes as well as behaviour between members of different groups. In this context, Cozetta et al., (2009, pp-12) quote Ajzen, 1988, 2001; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1972; Ajzen & Madden, 1986 about awareness regarding the contact with the persons with disabilities. Subsequently, the authors found that the social contact can decrease the anxiety and improve attitudes towards persons with disabilities.

Moreover, it was opined that the contacts between persons of similar backgrounds and who have similar experiences will make comfortable situations possible for disabled people. However, the authors warn about the anxiety of new experiences as well as the influence of them on the behaviour of disabled people. Consequently, the authors suggest developing defence mechanisms like avoidance and rationalization to minimize the feelings, thoughts as well as situations when they are perceived as uncomfortable.

In the above context Cozetta et al., (2009 pp-12) quote Wont et. al., 2004, p.201) about existence of reactions in interaction between persons with different disabilities or similar ones, that can seriously hinder the process of integration of people with disabilities. However, Cozetta et al., construe social context as a useful construction to understand the contributions to the development of negative as well as positive attitudes towards the persons with disabilities. According to the research, the researchers concluded that there is no substantial relationship between disability of a family and attitudes towards disabled persons scale. As a result, the researchers indicate that context alone of having disabled family members is not sufficient to explain the variations in attitudinal development and change regarding the disabled individuals.

However, Cozetta et. al., (2009, p.13) opine that contact and context are prominent variables to understand the development of attitudes. Hence, they term them as the variables or the causes of social power that decides the treatment meted by disabled persons in the society. However, they do not overrule the individual’s power as well as authority that decides the social context that substantially influences the societal attitudes. Hence, the social power of a disabled individual in a society also decides the attitudes of people towards him/her. Hence, the range of difference in attitudes of people towards disabled persons is important to discuss in different societies having different cultural backgrounds, religion as well as social backgrounds. ⁸

An Extension for Social Interaction

According to Thornton, Stephen, and Greg Marston (2009, p.74), the implementation of welfare-to-work policies for several security cohorts, which extended the principle of mutual obligation from the unemployed to people with disability- represented a new direction for people with disability as well as disability employment network. In the above context, Stephen and Marston (2009) quote Macali (2006), about welfare to work reforms that present a fundamental challenge in any society to how the disability employment network has previously operated. This opinion is due to the fact and make-up of the changes in professional relationships.

As the professional relationships mentioned above depend on voluntary assistance, they may result in formation of mode of engagement with clients. This mode of engagement will be based on necessity and intimidation. However, the researchers measured ‘street-level’ research and moral philosophy as well as ethics by observing the clash between requirements for disabled people in search of employment and the ethical value systems that are in forefront of employment consultants. They observed that the above-mentioned clash is visible in exposure of clients to Centrelink for fulfilment breakdown as well as ethical impasses.

Hence, the authors found the necessity to propose a disability employment network model. This can work with challenges of non-profit organizations as the idea of contextualising the work environment is within that network. Hence, the appointment of employment consultants has come to the fore. Hence, researchers found that the disabled people need support from the administration in the form of mechanism, though there are laws that help them. That means, if a law is enacted to help the individuals, a mechanism also should be named for executing that law as it is necessary to remove ethical as well as technical dilemmas while assisting the disabled people.

In the next stage, the authors talk about the connection between Non-profit organizations and the disability employment network. In this context, Stephen and Marston (2009, p.75) quote Carroll and Steane, (2002) about the arrangements between Government as purchaser and a huge number of for-profit and non-profit service provider organizations. They observed that the different organizations are offering services for different disabled people and some organizations are helping the people with different disabilities. However, most of the organizations normally concentrate on intellectual disability and psychiatric disabilities. Though, there are the organizations that assist for physically disabled persons, they are in small number and if those organizations are profit organizations, they concentrate only on disabilities that most people have.

Hence, the researchers found the necessity of non-profit organizations as well as the government agencies who deal directly with all types of physical as well as psychiatric disabilities. While talking about funding models, Stephen and Morston (2009, p.76) talk about the fee for service model, adopted for DEN providers. They observed this in case of United States, United Kingdom and Australia; all being Caucasian majority societies.

However, there is no mention of Asian and African societies that implement the above-mentioned models with the dexterity explained in this section. Even in the above-mentioned societies, there is reasonable level of dissatisfaction observed by Authors, though the services are delivered at minimal cost. Despite being delivered at minimal cost, the poor people are being ignored and created asymmetrical power relationships between the state and non-profit organizations and profit organizations. The reason is that the non-profit organizations are compelled to concentrate on poor people and profit organizations targeted the people who can pay.⁹

Theology and Down-Syndrome

In the next part of review, the religion comes to the fore and in this context, the theological view of down-syndrome is important. Every group and individual working as service provides for down-syndrome have much diversity in their views. The reason is that the approach to Down syndrome and disability is interdisciplinary and has distinct perspectives. According to Yong, Amos (2007, p.19), various perspectives combine to shape a common framework of understanding and action. In this context, Amos quotes Orelove and Sobsey (1991, p.13-14) about dynamic nature of contemporary research that approaches the transdisciplinary as well as many disciplines.

Subsequently, Amos raises the question “Who speaks for the Retarded?” and reminds that it has answer in history. In the above context, he talks about one-dimensional creatures that lack personal subjectivity as well as interpersonal agency. Hence, the terms them as feeble minded and understands them as intellectually disabled. Consequently, Amos (2009, p.21) quotes Pearl Buck’s Child Who Never Grew (1950) to provide parents’ perspective of challenges involved in raising an intellectually disabled child. As continuity to that he claims the fact of parents speaking for their retarded children being problematic as overprotective.

Moreover, he states that the parental narratives are windows into the lives of their children from outside. In the above context, he quotes the insistence of Theologists that adoption of life history approach for the people with intellectual disabilities can collaborate with research partners to develop their own life. As a consequence, Amos (2009, p.22) quotes self advocacy, intellectual disability, personal narrative and conviction regarding the activities of listening to people. Hence, he claims that it is important to know the problems of disability from the disabled persons or the family members of them and not from the preconceived conceptions regarding the disability.

In this context, he quotes about Christian theology that asks to help the disabled people in the introduction of his book and reminds the lack of historical agency as well as personal subjectivity that is necessary to tell the own stories.

Regarding the personal subjectivity Amos mentions the advocacy groups that worked with people with intellectual disabilities to ensure the needs and desires as well as perspectives of them are considered. In the above context, Amos quotes Williams and Shultz 1984; Longhurst 1994, who explain the individuals with Down Syndrome and differentiated some of them as having ‘Up Syndrome’ as they chatted not only about Down Syndrome but also about the friendship, school, recreation and fun/play times, girls and sex, marriage and children, becoming independent and plans. Amos found that the reactions of the family members and friends of the people with Down syndrome also depend on their religious beliefs.

Hence, the Down Syndrome is more associated with religious or cultural beliefs than any other disability; physical or mental. The important aspect about Down syndrome is that the persons are so encircled by it as it is difficult to communicate with other people. Hence, the lack of interaction between the individual and the society arises, whatever self consciousness the person may have. Hence, it is important to be reliant on the parents, family members or care takers while providing the rehabilitation service for them.¹⁰

As last section of this literature review, it is important to consider the legal aspects also as they are the guidelines that affect the thoughts of individuals and families in a society. Hence, the legal aspects regarding the disabling persons in an African Society; South Africa and a Caucasian dominated society like Canada or USA are part of the review. In the above context, the legal aspect of disability has been known as ‘This Ability’.

The legal context regarding disability in South Africa is related to Charter of the Organization of African Unity, The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Protocol of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, and for Women with a disability, the Protocol on Rights of Women in Africa. Though there is much diversity in Africa, the context of South Africa is the consideration as the context of an African Society about dealing with disabled persons in this paper. Before considering the legal aspects it is important to consider historically accumulated feelings and beliefs in the African Society about disabilities and disabled people as the laws and regulations also follow the same suit.

The above aspect holds good in the present context of African Society in this paper as only lesser proportion of population are in transition and only small powerful minority are being considered as modern. In the above context of the society, Cotter, Anne-Marie Mooney (2007, p.128) quote that disability related Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are classifiable according to their objectives, sources of finance and locus of control. Hence, service providers for disabled persons include foreign Christian missions and indigenous Churches as well as the groups having medical and preventive focus by welfare, education or employment orientation.

Moreover, the foreign aid organizations with general development aim support disability projects, which specialize in health, education or childhood, or some having a specific disability focus and campaign position. Hence, according to Cotter et. al., (2007, p.130) quote the legal aspects of South Africa that allowed the foreign as well as domestic and religious organizations to provide rehabilitation and other services for disabled people.

However, by the influence of European economies, the African leaders agreed to promote the role of different groups on social and economic development that help in promoting human rights of disabled people as well as for macroeconomic stability. As a result, the equality in education is important and for this aspect, it is important to frame some laws and regulations that help the disabled people. As a result, African society with the influence of European communities and societies adopted Dakar/Ngor Declaration in 1992 as they recognized that the population and development are inextricably linked and that disabled persons are part of the population.

Subsequently, the action has been recommended to set up goals according to International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) +5 program to provide universal access to primary education with exceptional attention in closing the gap in primary and secondary education and that resulted in providing services to mentally and physically disabled persons also as they also should be provided equal educational opportunities as well as job opportunities thereafter. As per the above goals, the South Africa recognized the inalienable right of all people to control their destiny and hence, the response of administration towards the disabled people. Consequently there will be some change in perspectives of people in the society towards the disabled people as they are provided equal opportunities by the government.¹¹

However, when it comes to Canada, the United States and Mexico, the situation is different and they are not induced but the legislations for disabled are being framed on their own depending on British model of government in Canada. According to Cotter et. al., (2007, p. 162), in a bit contrast to Canada, US model exhibits judicial activism in legislative character. Cotter et. al., (2007, p. 163) state that the Canadian constitution safeguards the rights and freedoms enumerated and as a result, the legislations are according to societal views as they are not forced on the government keeping in mind the aid that can be received if implemented.

Hence, the attitudes of individuals in society will be different from that of an African society regarding disabled people. Hence, the rights of disabled people are recognized as fundamental freedoms in contrast to the legislations of African societies, which are forced by some international conventions. According to section 15 (1) equality of rights are guaranteed for people with disabilities, though the section offers guarantee of rights irrespective of race, nationality, ethnicity, origin, colour, religion, sex and age.¹²

Methodology

The methodology involved in this paper for research is interview of disabled persons as well as their family members. The interviews of the different persons of three different societies are also taken to know their views about the disabled persons about their rights regarding education and jobs. The interviews are taken at Ranelagh Primary School, Suffolk United Kingdom. I took efforts to gather them at one place so that I can observe the body language and facial feelings of the participants while answering to the questions.

There will be a same questionnaire for Ghanian, Asian and Caucasian backgrounds. All the Ninety participants from the three back grounds answered all the thirty questions and their answers are recorded with their body language and facial feelings. After that the participants are narrowed down to 15 persons from each race that amounting to 45 persons out of total ninety participants. Another questionnaire of thirty questions for these 45 participants was prepared and I observed them while recording their answers to record their body language and facial feelings.

Questionnaire 1 (for 90 participants)

What is the nature of the disability of your child or family member
Do you think the disability is due to past deeds that manifest in the form of fate in this period?
- Yes
- No
- Maybe
- I don’t believe in it
Did your family resort to religion by praying to God to relieve your kin out of disability?
- Yes
- No
What sort of help you have got from religious society of yours?
What is the help you received from your government regarding providing equal opportunities in education and jobs for your disabled family member?
If any help and services as well as equal opportunity measures are provided by your government, did you receive them according to your satisfaction?
What sort of changes do you propose regarding services and offers provided by your government?
What is the attitude of your neighbours towards you disabled family member?
What is the attitude of the individuals in the society, who are unknown to you towards your disabled family member?

After interviewing the 90 people related to disabled people, they are narrowed by selecting 15 persons from each society or race and a total of 45 people are taken who belong to the individuals having different types of disabilities. Another questionnaire having 30 questions was prepared and again 45 persons are interviewed with that set of questions. In this context also, answers as well as the facial feelings and body language are recorded for analysis and comparison with the available literature.

Questionnaire 2 (for 45 participants)

What is the nature of the disability of your family member?
What do you think about that disability?
What reason do you have in your mind regarding the affliction of disability on your family member?
Is there any adjustment in your daily activities to look after the disabled person in your family?
If so, what is the type of adjustment?
What is the adjustment that earning members of the family resort to due to the presence of disabled person?
What is the type of adjustment, the non-earning family members resort to due to the presence of disabled person?
Do you see any religious reason or do you have any perception regarding god related to the disability of your family member?
If so, why do you think so?
If you believe in god, do you find any help from that side regarding reprieve for the disabled person and you?
What are your perceptions from your family side regarding disabled persons and their disabilities in general, not specific to the disabled person in your family?
Will you expect any help from your neighbours regarding the disabled person?
If so, did you ask them or how do you manage to get it?
If the disabled person is school going child, what sort of information do you get from the child regarding his/her treatment in school?
Is there any necessity to make the child go to a special education centre due to disability?
Are you getting any help from those school authorities and teaching staff to deal with the child?
If the child is studying in a regular school, what information he/she is giving regarding the way the classmates behave with him/her?
Is that information satisfies you?
Did you ever discuss with his/her classmates regarding their interaction?
If so, what is the result?
What sort of experiences you face when you take your child to a day out?
If the disabled person is an adult and an earning member of the family, does he/she needs any help from you?
If so, what is the help you offer to him/her?
Is your disabled earning member of family self-employed or an employee?
If he/she is self-employed, how did he/she achieve that?
Is there any help from the government side to get that source of income?
If the disabled person is an employee, is there any scheme or legislation that enabled him/her to get that job?
What sort of help your family receive from the government while educating the disabled person?
Do you find disabled persons in your society are getting equal opportunities as their non-disabled persons get?
If so, what is the reason according to your perception?
If not, what is the reason for that?

Research Findings

First of all the responses of 90 persons of three different societies; Ghana, Asia (India) and Caucasian, are presented as below.

Finding from First Question

For the first question regarding the nature of disability, 20 out of 30 people of Ghanaian background reported that they have physically disabled family member. 10 of them reported that they have mentally disabled family member. An additional question was posed to the first 20 members regarding physical disability of their disabled family member. They answered that they are ignorant in regarding that.

In case of 30 Indian (Asian) people, the ratio of physically and mentally disabled individuals is equal. The parents and family members of physically disabled people responded that they did not see any mental disability in them. In case of mentally disabled persons of Asian society, it was found that 10 out 15 people are suffering with down syndrome.

While questioning 30 people from Caucasian society, it was known that 15 of them belong to physically disabled persons and remaining 15 belong to mentally disabled individuals. However, the mentally disabled people from this society are not having severe implications like down syndrome, but just a little backwardness in learning, which are being considered as learning disabilities and their parents know that aspect. Regarding physical disability also, majority (10) of them are deaf and remaining 5 people belong to different physical disabilities in contrast to severe physical disabilities that are present in the persons present from Ghanaian and Indian (Asian) backgrounds.

Findings from Second Question

20 out of 30 people from Ghanaian background are not aware of the question and did not respond quickly and even after response they are not sure about it. However, remaining 10 people agreed that the past sins manifest in the form of present disability. Consequently, all the thirty members are ready to help their disabled family members to enable them in feeling good as well as their non-disabled counter parts.

In the context of asking the people from Asian (Indian) society, 25 of them answered that they believe that past sins are a cause for the present disability, but added that they still love their disabled family members and want to help them. However, 5 of them did not believe in that. Moreover, all the 30 people are ready to help their disabled family members in whatever way it is possible.

For the same question the 15 out of 30 Caucasian people responded that they believe in that aspect and added that they did not bother much about that. They want to assist their family members irrespective of the past and present sins as they feel painful about the disability to their loved ones.

Findings from the third Question

Cutting across the society lines an overwhelming majority (80 percent) of 90 participants answered that they prayed God to relieve the disability of their loved ones.

Findings from fourth Question

While answering the fourth question, 15 people of Ghanaian background reported that their religious society helped them in wishing good for their disabled family member and prayed for him/her. However, the remaining 15 people did not get that help or they did not think in that way.

Regarding the fourth question, 25 out of 30 people from Asian (Indian) society claimed that they and their disabled family members are part of the religious rituals that are believed to provide reprieve or help for the disabled person. Remaining 5 persons responded that they are not interested in them.

In the context of 30 persons from Caucasian society, 20 of them are part of mass prayers conducted for the cause of their disabled family members. The remaining 10 people responded that they did not think in that way till now, though they are aware of those mass prayers.

Findings from Fifth and Sixth Question

The 15 people of Ghanaian background answered that non-profit organizations, which run with international funding are helping their disabled family members regarding their education. Out of the 30 people, 25 of them are parents of disabled children and 5 of them are spouses of earning members. Two of the spouses responded that they got jobs with the help of government’s schemes, but three of them responded that they are self-employed with small businesses without the help from the government.

In the context, of Indian people, 15 of them are children and 15 of them are earning members of their family. The parents of children responded that they received help from special education schools. 9 of them are resorting to government funded special education schools and five of them send their disabled children to private or non-profit special education schools and one of them go to regular school with special care from parents as the child is having mild mental disability.

Regarding the Caucasian Parents and family members of disabled people, 15 disabled individuals are children and 15 people are earning members of the family. All the parents of the children did not bother about the way their children are getting special care for their disability, but they are getting assistance from the society as the government in their area is providing enough help for disabled children to educate themselves. Regarding the 15 disabled individuals who are earning for the family responded that they got job opportunities due to equal employment opportunities system that is being implemented in private and government jobs in their countries.

Findings from Seventh Question

Regarding the help from the administration, the Ghanaian people responded that the quality of services offered by government should be enhanced so that they can receive more help from non-profit organizations. Moreover, they are more concerned about the quality of services they are receiving from government agencies as well as non-profit organizations for their disabled children. In addition to that, the 5 persons from the family of disabled earning member responded that they need more help from the government regarding employment for disabled people.

In case of Indian society people, the parents of 20 children are finding enough special education schools and reservations for their children in government and private schools, but they are more concerned about the quality of services they receive in government schools. Regarding 10 disabled individuals who are earning for their family, responded that they got jobs as per the reservations implemented by the government in public sector jobs.

The people from Caucasian society responded that they are getting enough help from the government and they are not at all bothered about the help and the response from the society, but are concerned about the time the family members have to spend on the disabled individuals.

Findings from Eighth Question

The people from Ghana did not respond clearly about the responses of neighbours but it is clear from their responses the neighbours are not so helpful regarding activities of disabled member.

75 percent of Indian society people responded that they received help from the neighbours, but 25 percent responded that they did not consider it as a factor.

In the context of Caucasian society people, they are not bothered about the help from neighbours as they are concerned only with the time they can spend for the activities of the disabled people.

Findings from Ninth Question

Regarding the responses from individuals in society towards their disabled family members, Ghanaian people are not sure about them. However, they are not feeling that the society is barring them.

In case of Indian people, the parents of mentally disabled people feel that they society is not so much favourable towards their kids.

In the case of Caucasian society people, they feel that the society is not averse to their disabled family members.

Research Findings on 45 People; 15 from each Society with Second Set of 30 Questions

After the above responses, the researchers narrowed out 45 members; 15 members from each society. From Ghanaian society, out of family members of 25 disabled children, 10 people are selected and remaining five are the family members of earning disabled people. Out of 10 family members of disabled people, eight members belong to physically disabled children and two members belong to mentally disabled kids.

From the people of Asian society, 12 family members of disabled children are selected and out of them, six are physically disabled and other six are facing psychological backwardness. Remaining three members are the family members of the disabled employees.

From the people of Caucasian society, eight family members of disabled children are selected and out of them 2 individuals belonging to the family members of physically disabled children. The remaining six are parents of mentally disabled kids. The remaining seven members are family members of disabled employees.

Religious Aspects

The aspect of religion and the past deeds as a reason for the present disability is present in all the three types of people, but that is decreasing in the order from Ghanaian to Caucasian people. Though all the people of three different societies are adjusting their time according to the needs of disabled family members, the level of difficulty is increasing from Ghanaian people to Caucasian society. However, there is diversity in the type of adjustments between Ghanaian, Asian and Caucasian people.

Discussion

Ghanaian people are finding it difficult to female members in their home to deal alone with the disabled members. In case of Indian people, the house wives did not bother much, but employed mothers are feeling the heat if there is lack of cooperation from the father of the child. In case of Caucasian society, parents are concerned about their child and as majority of couples are both employed, they are finding it difficult to deal with the child. A common aspect that is observed in all the people of different societies is that none of them is seeking help from neighbours except for small cooperation at home.

The most important concern observed is about the treatment meted out to the disabled children in school as they are not capable of playing and participating in physical and mental activities as other children. Hence, the parents feel that their kids are not socially acceptable. However, in case of intelligent physically disabled children, the parents are less bothered about the above-mentioned aspect.

Regarding the physically disabled children, most of the Ghanaian parents are guided by a well educated well wisher to go to special education schools, but in case of Asian and Caucasian parents, they approached the special education schools for their physically disabled children on the advice of their paediatricians.

The Ghanaian parents are not sure about the acceptability of the behaviour of teaching staff with their children, but majority of Indian parents are not satisfied with the teaching staff. However, that type of dissatisfaction is least observed in case of Caucasian parents, but they are demanding more services from the side of government agencies to deal with their physically disabled children. However, most of the parents depend on the information given by their children regarding the activities in school and they decide accordingly about their visits there. The next concern is about the way they have to deal with disabled children when they take them for a day out. The difficulties are different for physical and mental disabilities.

The physically disabled children need attention and control from the side of parents, while the physically disabled children need assistance also. However, in case of deaf and dumb children, the assistance is minimal. Regarding the employment of the disabled individuals, the people of Ghanaian are finding their way to earn with a little help from the administration, but Indian disabled can utilise the reservations in jobs for handicapped and Caucasian society is enjoying the benefits of equal opportunities act as well as the diversity management activities, which provide employment opportunities for disabled people at par with the ordinary individuals.

Difficulties for Ghanaian People

It was found from the responses of Ghanaian people that it is difficult for disabled people to resist social and economic marginalisation. As out of five earning disabled members in the 15 people narrowed out, three members are women and they responded that it is difficult to manage social change and it is possible to find a way through Christian religious participation. The information given by them tallied with the research on three women by Denise M. Nepveux (2006) about their religious participation. Consequently, women found religion as a significant arena that helped them to reframe their marginalisation as well as the religious beliefs. The Christian religious beliefs and services helped the Ghanaian disabled people especially women to reassert their common humanity and to enhance the material conditions of their lives.

The three women who participated in the study are from Greater Accra Region of Ghana and Nepveux’s study is from the same area. Hence, it is important to compare and discuss the responses of Ghanaian women in this research with that of Nepveux. Nepveux (2006) quotes about disabled women who got recognition as a group that is vulnerable to neglect. They also face a threat of sexual abuse. according to Coalition on the Women’s Manifesto, (2004).

The Manifesto acknowledged that the disabled women are highly vulnerable to divorce. In addition to that they are frequently left to take care of the children on their own. Same feelings are echoed by the women participants and they told that they experienced economic and procedural barriers that prevented them to access basic mobility aids as they are from economically lower background. However, they are ignorant of religious beliefs and informed that they received help from church regarding the access to facilities for education and job. ¹³

While considering the responses of men, they are regarding the reactions of family members and individuals in society, but they are not as bad as disabled women faced, while trying for education and employment. Hence, it indicates that many disabled women are ignorant of religious beliefs, but Church helped them to access the facilities offered by government and non-profit organisations.

Ghanaian Society Responses

In the context of remaining 10 family members of disabled children, they responded that they received help from Community Based Rehabilitation Centre (CBRC) in Garu, Ghana. The society is helping adults as well as the children to have skills regarding livelihood. In case of children CBRC is helping their parents to deal with the physical as well as mental disability of their kids. The parents of 10 disabled children from Ghana informed that CBRC at Garu is helping them to accept their kids’ disability and is helping them to reintegrate into mainstream schools, which the parents also feel is a necessary aspect for their disabled children. In the families which find time even after dealing with their physically disabled children, the CBRC is offering training in sewing, weaving, shoemaking and sustainable agriculture, so that they can cope up with the extra expenditure if any from their disabled children.¹⁴

Asian Society Responses

In the context of 12 parents of disabled children and 3 employed males from Asian society (India), they expressed religious beliefs as well as the need of special care for their children. The employees informed that their employment is due to reservations in government jobs for handicapped offered by the government. The parents of disabled children informed that they are finding enough number of schools that take enough care for their children but it is difficult to get access to these schools in rural areas as majority of them are located in urban localities.

Hence, the disabled people from rural areas have only part time access to the special care as they approach these schools only once or twice in an year according to their availability of time to spend the time in the city with children. However, the problem is more intensive in case of physically disabled children as they need continuous care and the part time care received by physically disabled children in rural areas is not sufficient to compete with their non-disabled peers. However, another important aspect found here is that these parents are religious though they access the material services of government and non-profit as well as profit organisations. They allow their children to access the above mentioned facilities and simultaneously resort to religious rituals also to neutralise the evil effects of past deeds if any that are spoiling the life of their children.

However, the situation in Asian society like India is well when compared to Ghana as enough rehabilitation services are available for disabled persons from government, private and religious organisations. However, the responses of Indian parents of disabled people, match with the conclusions of Hall E. (2008, p.6), about sufferings of disabled people and their parents regarding negative attributes from both the range space and the domain space. The parents revealed that they are caring for their children and Hall’s (2006) survey also stated the same that the parents are caring and sympathetic towards the PWDs to save them from depression.¹⁵

Responses of Caucasian Society People

Regarding the responses from the people of Caucasian dominated society, they are a bit higher standard regarding services and facilities received from the side of government as well as the society. In case of society, they receive help from religious charitable organisations as well as non-profit organisations. Moreover, the responses from society as well as individuals also when compared to the Asian and Ghanaian societies are better in American society according to the responses of Caucasian parents regarding their children. Moreover, only 2 children out of 8 children narrowed from 30 to 15 are physically disabled and remaining are mentally disabled individuals.

Out of the 30 respondents also, they are present in the same proportion. This indicates the health care given to the women while they are pregnant and thus the physical disability is less incident in American Society. It does not mean that the mental disability is more, but they are considering the slow learners also as disabled persons, which is not the context in case of Ghanaian and Asian society. The children whom Americans consider as mentally disabled are not at all recognised as like that in Ghana but ignored in Asian Society like India. If they recognise only some elite people are considering their children as mentally disabled ones. However, while considering seven employed disabled individuals out of 15 narrowed down from 30 Caucasian people reported that the industry in United States is considering them in recruitments.

They feel that the strategies of the Industry in USA are helping the disabled individuals to compete with the individuals who do not have any physical disability. In this context, the responses of Caucasian society people coincide with that of words of Kramer quoted by Lisa Jennings (2009, p. 14) as ‘Industry benefits by supporting the disabled. Michael Kramer who is Senior Director of YAI/National Institute for People with Disabilities opined that food service industry across United States of America is supportive one for hiring people with disabilities. The important aspect regarding the hiring of disabled people by food chain restaurants like McDonald is the training of YAI.

Hence, a trainee from YAI, though is a disabled person, they are being preferred by the corporate restaurants. Hence, training is important for disabled people to find employment and that type of organisations, which are capable in enabling the disabled people to find employment are present in United States of America as well as the other Caucasian Societies.¹⁶ Though the Asian Society like India provides job reservations, something like enabling them to work at par with ordinary people is not present there.

Analysis

Considering the responses regarding religious beliefs that are connected with disabled people, the Ghanaian society reflects the insidious problem that arises from abuses of children due to lack of professional social work programs. Due to the above lack of social work mixed with religious beliefs that can be termed as superstitious can be termed as the major reason for the fate of disabled children in Ghana. The religious beliefs even resulted in trafficking, child marriage and neglect of disabled children in the some regions of Ghana.

Hence, it is important to educate the people according to the need that facilitates them to help their disabled children by neglecting the unnecessary religious beliefs. However, the organisations in Garu region mentioned in the earlier sections of this assignment and other Christian religious organisations are enabling them to know the truth that is being covered by superstitious. ¹⁷

However, this is not the case with Asian society like India, though they are having religious beliefs. The religious beliefs of Indian people are not restricting them from accessing the material services offered by non-profit organisations, profit organisations as well as the government. Is there anybody’s life has been made worse due to poverty in India, it may be due to poverty and ignorance. As per the article of Balakrishna Venkatesh (1992), the rural people in India are not able to understand the diseases like Polio that cause permanent disability. This is severe when their income is very less and when they are suffering in poverty; normally they tend to go to faith healers, witch doctors.

However, recently Indian people can access the facilities and services for their physically as well as mentally disabled children. However, Indian parents responded that their kids are being called as cripple when they are physically disabled and ‘mental’ when they are mentally disabled. Hence, the disabled children are not receiving the required positive reactions from society to make them competitive enough in the future. However, when their financial and educational backgrounds are observed, it became evident that the religious beliefs of the parents are not obstacles in their kid’s way to success in the field they want to succeed.

Hence, it can be understood from the responses of parents of disabled children that their family’s financial, geographical and educational background is deciding their child’s access to the facilities and services that enable him/her to be skilled or educated. However, it is evident from the responses of three disabled employees that after completing education, they can secure a job as the government is offering reservations in public sector for handicapped people.¹⁸ Hence, one can understand that the financial background and awareness about the facilities as well as the availability of time to concentrate on the disabled child of and for the parents is deciding the fate of the disabled children in India. However, if the government and non-profit organisations show more attention towards rural and poor people’s families which have disabled kids, the situation will be much better.

This is evident from the findings of Sunil Karande, Vidur. Mahajan, Madhuri. Kulkarni (2009, pp.382) that only 30 percent responses of adolescent disabled people are positive regarding their experiences. Out of remaining 70 percent 40 percent are neutral and 30 percent are negative.

The same is evident in the responses of Indian parents and employed disabled persons in the research. Hence, it is evident that though the disabled people in India have access to the facilities and services the experiences of them are not pleasant or at least positive. Unfortunately, the disabled children in Asian Society like India are finding enough number of teachers while studying in regular schools who receive beating irrespective of their disability. However, there are enough teachers who encourage them so that they can compete with the regular kids. ¹⁹

In contrast to Ghana and Asian Societies, the issues of Caucasian society’s people are of different. They are finding it difficult to find enough time to spend with their disabled children though they are having access to special services for mentally disabled and facilities for physically disabled. The parents of disabled kids responded that they are concerned about the quality time they can spend with their children.

The above–mentioned concern is more in 6 mentally disabled children’s parents out of 15 disabled people or their family members form a Caucasian Society. The parents of disabled children responded that their children are getting enough access with their efforts as well as the facilities provided by government. This means, it is evident that the government as well as the non-governmental and non-profit organisations are taking enough care to help the disabled people. In the above context, it is reasonable to quote Laurie J. Bonnici, Stephanie L. Maatta and Muriel K. Wells (2009, p.512) about the library access to the disabled people.

This comes under the re-conceptualisation of equal access aspect in the global context. Laurie et al., (2009 p.512-518) quote that the librarians are serving the disabled people through national library service for the Blind and physically handicapped. Parents of disabled children participated in the research revealed that there are enough organisations like the above to meet the educational needs of the disabled children. Hence, though the disabled people in Caucasian society are having enough access to facilities and services when compared to Ghanaian and Indian societies, they are being disturbed due to the lack of enough quality time with their kids. However, the seven employed disabled people from Caucasian societies do not have any reservations about their career prospects as they can find enough institutions that make them skilled and organisations that prefer them for work and recognise their skills.²⁰

Conclusion

As per the discussion and analysis based on research and literature review, it is clear that the disabled people in Caucasian society are more comfortable than their counterparts in Ghanaian and Asian (Indian) Societies. It was observed that the fate of disabled people fares better in increasing order, while observing from Ghanaian via Indian to Caucasian societies. In a Caucasian society there are enough facilities for education for disabled people as well as the job opportunities.

However, in the context of Indian society, though there are enough facilities the access is restricted for poor, uneducated and rural people. However, the access to jobs for educated disabled people is better in Indian society. While coming to the context of Ghanaian society, the backwardness and the lack of facilities are reason for the sufferings and adverse conditions of disabled people. The facilities the disabled people in Ghanaian society are very few and meagre when compared to Indian and Caucasian societies. As a whole, it can be concluded that the disabled are treated well in a Caucasian society, in a mediocre way in Indian society and are being ill treated in Ghanaian society.

Reference List

Balakrishna Venkatesh. (1992). The eye of the beholder. new internationalist. Issue 223. Web.

Barbara, Dobson. Sue, Middleton & Alan Beardsworth. (2001). The impact of childhood disability on family life. Edition 1. York, UK: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Beauchesne, JF. (2003). “A chance to succeed. (P W S Developments).” Presbyterian Record : 26c. Academic OneFile. Web.

Burke, Peter. (2003). Brothers and Sisters of Disabled Children. Edition information not available. London. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Page 11.

Cotter, Anne-Marie Mooney. (2007). This Ability: An International Legal Perspective of Disability Discrimination. Farnham, Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Limited.

Denise M. Nepveux. (2006). Reclaiming Agency, Ensuring Survival: Disabled Urban Ghanaian Women’s Negotiations of Church and Family Belonging. Disability Studies Quarterly. 26(4). Web.

Hall, E. (2008). Changing the Way Employees Interact With Guests With Disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 19(1), 15-23. Web.

Harris, James C. (2005). Intellectual Disability: Understanding Its Development, Causes, Classification, Evaluation, and Treatment. Oxford, USA: Oxford University Press.

Heidari, Shirin, and Susan Kippax. (2009). “Special theme on HIV and disability – time for closer bonds.” Journal of the International AIDS Society 2: 1. Pp-1 to 2.

Jennings, L. (2009). Kramer: Industry benefits by supporting the disabled. Nation’s Restaurant News. (14). Pp. 14.

Karande, Sunil, Vidur Mahajan, and Madhuri Kulkarni. (2009). “Recollections of learning-disabled adolescents of their schooling experiences: A qualitative study.” Indian Journal of Medical Sciences 63.9. pp. 382.

Laurie J. Bonnici, Stephanie L. Maatta, and Muriel K. Wells. (2009). US national accessibility survey: librarians serving patrons with disabilities. New Library World 110, no. 11/12: 512-528. Web.

Marie-Antoinette, Sossou & Joseph A. Yogtiba. (2009). Abuse of Children in West Africa: Implications for Social Work Education and Practice. The British Journal of SocialWork. 39(7):1218-1234.

Patrick Shannon. (2004). Barriers to Family-Centered Services for Infants and Toddlers with Developmental Delays. Social Work 49, no. 2: 301-8.

Shannon, Cozetta D., Timothy N. Tansey., & Barbara Schoen. (2009). “The effect of contact, context, and social power on undergraduate attitudes toward persons with disabilities.” The Journal of Rehabilitation 75.4: pp. 11-18.

Smith, Diane L., & Maribeth S. Ruiz. (2009). “Perceived disparities in access to health care due to cost for women with disabilities.” The Journal of Rehabilitation 75.4.

Thornton, Stephen, & Greg Marston. (2009). “Who to serve? The ethical dilemma of employment consultants in non-profit disability employment network organisations.” Australian Journal of Social Issues 44.1 (2009): 73-89.

Yong, Amos (Author). (2007). Theology and Down syndrome: Reimagining Disability in Late Modernity. Waco, TX, USA: Baylor University Press.

Footnotes

Burke, Peter. (2003). Brothers and Sisters of Disabled Children. Edition information not available. London. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Page 11.
Heidari, Shirin, and Susan Kippax. 2009. “Special theme on HIV and disability – time for closer bonds.” Journal of the International AIDS Society 2: 1. Pp-1to 2.
Burke, Peter. (2003). Brothers and Sisters of Disabled Children. Edition information not available. London. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Page 12.
Barbara, Dobson. Sue, Middleton & Alan Beardsworth. (2001). The Impact of Childhood Disability on Family Life. Edition 1. York, UK: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
Patrick Shannon. 2004. Barriers to Family-Centered Services for Infants and Toddlers with Developmental Delays. Social Work 49, no. 2: 301-8
Harris, James C. (Author). (2005). Intellectual Disability: Understanding Its Development, Causes, Classification, Evaluation, and Treatment. Oxford, USA: Oxford University Press.
Smith, Diane L., and Maribeth S. Ruiz. 2009. “Perceived disparities in access to health care due to cost for women with disabilities.” The Journal of Rehabilitation 75.4.
Shannon, Cozetta D., Timothy N. Tansey, and Barbara Schoen. 2009. “The effect of contact, context, and social power on undergraduate attitudes toward persons with disabilities.” The Journal of Rehabilitation 75.4: pp. 11-18
Thornton, Stephen, and Greg Marston. (2009). “Who to serve? The ethical dilemma of employment consultants in non-profit disability employment network organisations.” Australian Journal of Social Issues 44.1: 73-89.
Yong, Amos. (2007). Theology and Down Syndrome: Reimagining Disability in Late Modernity. Waco, TX, USA: Baylor University Press.
Cotter, Anne-Marie Mooney (Author). (2007). This Ability: An International Legal Perspective of Disability Discrimination. Farnham, Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Limited.
Cotter, Anne-Marie Mooney. (2007). This Ability: An International Legal Perspective of Disability Discrimination. Farnham, Surrey, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Limited.
Denise M. Nepveux. 2006. Reclaiming Agency, Ensuring Survival: Disabled Urban Ghanaian Women’s Negotiations of Church and Family Belonging. Disability Studies Quarterly. 26(4). Web.
Beauchesne, JF. “A chance to succeed. (P W S Developments).” Presbyterian Record. 2003: 26c. Academic OneFile. Web.
Hall, E. (2008). Changing the Way Employees Interact With Guests With Disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 19(1), 15-23. Web.
Jennings, L… 2009. Kramer: Industry benefits by supporting the disabled. Nation’s Restaurant News.(14). Pp. 14
Marie-Antoinette Sossou & Joseph A. Yogtiba. 2009. Abuse of Children in West Africa: Implications for Social Work Education and Practice. The British Journal of SocialWork. 39(7):1218-1234
Balakrishna Venkatesh. 1992. The eye of the beholder. New internationalist. Issue 223. Web.
Karande, Sunil, Vidur Mahajan, and Madhuri Kulkarni. 2009. “Recollections of learning-disabled adolescents of their schooling experiences: A qualitative study.” Indian Journal of Medical Sciences 63.9. pp. 382.
Laurie J. Bonnici, Stephanie L. Maatta, and Muriel K. Wells. 2009. US national accessibility survey: librarians serving patrons with disabilities. New Library World 110, no. 11/12: 512-528. Web.

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