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The advantages of doing survey research are (1) short data collection time; (2) generally lowest costs of research studies; (3) possibility to assess the data reliability with the use of the correlation coefficient while practicing repeated surveys in the same population category; and (4) this type of research often features the highest rates of efficiency when speed, cost, and accuracy are compared with the similar variables in the other types of research (Wright, 2006). Survey research is an effective tool for studying human behavior, beliefs, and attitudes. Therefore, a survey research is a systematic way to collect the data from various categories of people that would allow generating the new knowledge regarding their values, ideas, world vision, and factors that impact their behavior.
The main disadvantage of doing survey research is the possibility of acquiring the biased data. This difficulty is explained by the peculiarities’ of working with respondents and choosing sampling. For instance, respondents may have different patterns of understanding questionnaires, and therefore, the answers they provide may feature a measure of inaccuracy. This problem also refers to the choice of communication survey methods because the wrong approach may result in inaccuracy of the acquired results. In addition, it is quite difficult to choose the research sample to collect data to ensure the lowest rate of research error and bias (Krosnick, 1999). Besides, achieving the desired rate of accuracy of the acquired results is also a complex problem requiring a lot of hard work to solve because accuracy directly depends on proper sampling.
The class reading article entitled “Police culture, individualism, and community policing: Evidence from two police departments” by Paoline, Myers, and Worden (2000) is an illustration to the information discussed above. Analysis of this article suggests that a survey was supportive for this research to a considerable degree because it helped to collect the data about the aspects that form the collective image of police corporate culture. The researchers have chosen the fitting communication strategy with police officers in different departments and have utilized the proper sampling approach. As a result, they have acquired valid and reliable results.
The findings made by Paoline et al. (2000) have helped them to come up with the conclusion that their research hypothesis was correct. Particularly, the survey research has demonstrated that cultural patterns among the police officers working in different communities around the country have experienced shifting due to the increasing diversity of police officers and the growing variation in preserving outlooks. The key factors that shape police corporate culture are the police officers’ race, sex, education, diversity in social backgrounds, and exposure to community policing (Paoline et al., 2000).
The advantages of collecting data through participant observation are (1) ability to collect data and record behaviors that take place naturally in the environment; (2) ability to generalize behaviors to certain groups of people; and (3) this method is an excellent solution to the problem of data collection when it comes to the research subjects with mental or speaking disabilities. Overall, this method provides an opportunity to ponder into the real-life atmosphere of the studied phenomenon and thus, decrease the dangers of inaccuracy.
The disadvantages of collecting data through participant observation are (1) costly staff necessary to conduct the research observations; (2) the research can be quite time consuming; (3) the problem of fitting the observer into the setting of research interest unobtrusively and without publicity; (4) potential bias or subjectivity demonstrated by the observer; (5) inability to determine meaning; and (6) the complexity of identification of meaningful behavior to observe (Becker, 1958). Therefore, the reliability and validity of this type of research study design are highly dependent on the skills and preparedness as well as the high rate of professionalism in the specialists conducting observations.
The advantages of collecting data through systematic social observation are (1) conducting observations with a specific purpose to collect data regarding the focus group of study subjects rather than participant observation; (2) targeting only certain behaviors rather than all behaviors of the focus group as it is in the participant observation; (3) recording the observed behaviors systematically; and (4) increased rates of validity and reliability that becomes possible through the use of the systematic component (Odgers, Caspi, Bates, Sampson, & Moffitt, 2012). Consequently, this type of research design has similar advantages with participant observation, but it exceeds its value due to the increased validity and reliability that become possible because of the implementation of the systematic components of observations organization.
The disadvantages of collecting data through systematic social observation are (1) high rate of labor investment into the project completion since systematic observing requires much time to detect the behavior of the focus of interest for the intended research study; (2) increased costs due to the longer time of observations; and (3) there can be also ethical and moral issues concerned when this type of research is utilized because the study subjects are not informed about the researchers plans to investigate the patterns of their behavior. The ethical and moral considerations are currently the most inconvenient issues with regards to systematic social observations because of the heated debates on how this type of research design corresponds to the legislative norms of the U.S. Constitution guarantying the citizens the right for privacy and informed consent.
Validity is a research design element that is commonly associated with the stringency and significance of its results and findings. Validity is utilized by the research experts to judge about the quality of the research study conducted. It mostly refers to whether it can be said that research conclusions are well-founded. There two types of research design validity commonly distinguished by scholars: internal validity and external validity. Internal validity stands for the extent in which the observed outcome may be attributed to the offered intervention. In a broader sense, it means that the measurements performed during the research successfully evaluate the variables stated by the author, and the conclusions presented by the authors are actually based on the facts found during research (Golafshani, 2003). External validity refers to the extent to which the observed endpoint can be generalized to other populations and settings and attributed to the repeated interventions. It means that the findings can be extrapolated and used to form a new hypothesis. The importance of the study validity is crucial for evaluating of its results. If the study validity degree is low, then its results will have the modest impact on the development of the scholarly thought and new knowledge generation, making it less valuable for the scientific community.
Reliability stands for the concept of trustworthiness of the research results based on how well each component of the research study was done. If a study is reliable, it can be reproduced with the same results (Briggs & Coleman, 2007). This concept is especially relevant to measurements. If the measurements and calculations are done properly, then a conclusion can be made that the research results are reliable. In addition, reliability can be attributed to the evaluation of the instrument utilized for a study. Reliability will then measure how consistent and stable the instrument is and whether it can be said that the instrument is dependable. The importance of reliability for the evaluation of trustworthiness of the research results is that it helps to make conclusions as for whether there is no random or systematic error in the given study. The reliability is an important tool in detecting falsification and fraud. Currently, there are projects seeking to verify past studies and confirm that they are reliable. In the recent years some the extremely authoritative studies have been found to be unreliable and fraudulent which underlines the importance of this criterion in detecting falsification.
Generalizability is the concept that helps to evaluate to which extent the research results can apply to other samples or populations. This concept is used to define how one set of findings can be useful in interpreting similar situations and phenomena. Generalizability is often associated with external validity and transferability of the study. The importance of generalizability is its significance for the evaluation of the findings of quantitative studies. However, there is still controversy among the scholars as to whether generalizability can be equally implemented to the findings made within the frames of qualitative studies. The growing number of scholars feels that generalizability is not the main purpose of qualitative research, but it is highly important for the evaluation of findings in the quantitative research. In addition, many scholars feel that generalizability is the prerogative of a reader of research and not the researcher. In other words, it is the task of the reader of the research study who aims to implement it in one’s activity to generalize the study findings to apply it to the situation he or she is interested in. Overall, studies with high generalizability are more valuable for other researchers who can base a new hypothesis on them or use them to perform secondary analysis providing new findings based on the same data.
Secondary analysis is a type of research study in which the data collected by other scholars is utilized and analyzed again (Glass, 1976). Such analysis can try to answer the same questions more accurately, or pursue a new research goal. This type of research design is becoming more popular these days because it has many advantages such as (1) it saves costs and time for data collection; (2) it helps to obtain the data that could not be obtained with the help of any other method; and (3) it helps to enlarge on the work of other scholars enabling the synergy of implemented skills to ensure the higher rate of study effectiveness. This method also allows the researchers to make use of the extensive online databases which aggregate previous studies. In many cases, data collected by other scientists can be viewed from a different angle to prove a different hypothesis. The Internet allows the modern researchers to prove their concepts through secondary analysis without seeking funds.
The disadvantages of secondary analysis are the limited validity and inapplicability of the existing data for the new research purpose. These disadvantages often place limits on the reliability and trustworthiness of research studies conducted with the use of secondary data. Another problem is that all the necessary data may not be available in the already existing research. A similar complexity exists when the available data is too broad, and the researcher needs to spend time to sort out the data that is relevant for the new research. Moreover, original data set may be not accurate. Other common complexities include the difficulty to interpret the borrowed data, decreased power of data due to the possibility of low generalizability, and increased probability of external error. All of these issues are caused by the fact that the researcher is removed from the source of information and cannot verify it or collect additional material. Secondary analysis also raises a number of ethical concerns. The subjects did not expressly consent to this additional review of their data. Their personal data may also become accessible to a third party which has no permission to use it (Thome, 1998). All of these factors make secondary research considerably less reliable and somewhat morally questionable.
The article “Police (canteen) sub-culture. An appreciation” by Waddington (1999) is an example of this type of research. This research study has evaluated the data collected by other researchers to derive information on police canteen subculture and generate the new knowledge on this theme. The main findings of the article amount to interpreting the importance of the social interactions that take place in the police canteens for overcoming the complexities of the profession through the collective mutual support in a peer discussion of the complex issues. According to Waddington (1999), “what occurs in the canteen is expressive talk designed to give purpose and meaning to inherently problematic occupational experience’ (p. 287). In addition, evaluating the secondary data he has found in the scholarly literature, the researcher has concluded that “the canteen is an arena of action separate from the street, where in contrast to the latter officers act before an audience of their peers “ (p. 287).
The selected topic is how police culture impacts the police performance and effectiveness of its works as well as it facilitates police officers’ adaptability to the complexity of profession and what current programs exist to improve the state of affairs in the sector. To explore this theme from two different perspectives, I have chosen the two articles: (1) “An exploratory study on the effect of an approach-avoidance coping program on perceived stress and physical energy among police officers” by Anshe and Brinthaupt (2014) and (2) “Overcoming cop culture? Organizational justice and police officers’ attitudes toward the public” by Myhill and Bradford (2013).
The first article describes the Approach-Avoidance Coping Program that has had a positive impact on police culture reformation to ensure a higher rate of performance and higher rates of police officers’ work satisfaction. At that, the main focus of the study was how this program may help police officers change their perceived stress levels and physical energy rates maintenance during the work shifts despite the existing complexity of the profession. To collect the required data, the researchers have utilized the quantitative study design. The participants completed the survey papers before and after the interventions. The research participants were “11 police officers in a medium-sized US city who volunteered to engage in a coping skills program due to experiencing excessive job-related stress” (Anshel & Brinthaupt, 2014, p. 2).
The research study procedure they underwent was “an initial 2-hour seminar on approach-avoidance coping skills and met privately with a stress management coach” (Anshel & Brinthaupt, 2014, p. 2). During the surveys the officers rated themselves on three scales: Perceived Stress Scale, Perceived Physical Energy, and Coping Style for Acute Stress. Based on the surveys and the narratives created by the subjects, the researchers created a set of variables and compared those using paired samples t-tests. Such tests are a simple methodic based on comparing the same variable in one population before and after an intervention or in similar populations. It has been proven to show good results even when exact pairing is impossible (David & Gunnink, 1997). The main study finding was that “analyses indicated reduced use of approach coping strategies that approached significance” (Anshel & Brinthaupt, 2014, p. 2). Overall, given the data presented in this article, a conclusion can be made that the frequency of desired outcomes justifies the continuation of the program.
The second article has observed how the reform program impacts police culture to increase the rates of organizational justice. To collect the research data, Myhill and Bradford (2013) have resorted to the use of the quantitative research design in the form of a survey. First, the scientists used confirmatory factor analysis to verify the data and form four variables for further modeling. The verified data analysis was done with the help of structural equation modeling (SEM) (Myhill & Bradford, 2013). SEM is a commonly used tool in social studies. It is used to connect observed variables to the latent ones in order to extrapolate and draw the broader conclusions (Hancock, 2003). The main finding of this research study is that “the SEM showed that organizational justice was associated with positive attitudes towards serving members of the public. This relationship was mediated by commitment to elements of community policing and, for community police officers, by general satisfaction with the organization” (Myhill & Bradford, 2013, p. 338). The main implication of this study results in facilitation of the positive working atmosphere and professional climate and culture promoting organizational justice in the police agency refer to the activity of police managers. Incorporating the reform program into the police daily life matters, they have to mind the importance of implementing “internal policies
and practices that are procedurally fair’ (Myhill & Bradford, 2013, p. 338). In general, given the data presented in this article, a similar conclusion to the first article can be made that the frequency of desired outcomes justifies the continuation of the program.
References
Anshel, M. H., & Brinthaupt, T. M. (2014). An exploratory study on the effect of an approach-avoidance coping program on perceived stress and physical energy among police officers. Psychology, 5(7), 1-12.
Becker, H. S. (1958). Problems of Inference and Proof in Participant Observation. American Sociological Review, 23(6), 652-660.
Briggs, A. & Coleman, M. (2007) Research Methods in Educational Leadership and Management. London, UK: SAGE Publications.
David, H. & Gunnink, J. (1997). The Paired t Test Under Artificial Pairing. The American Statistician, 51(1), 9.
Glass, G. (1976). Primary, Secondary, and Meta-Analysis of Research. Educational Researcher, 5(10), 3.
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research. The Qualitative Report, 8(4), 597-606.
Hancock, G. (2003) Fortune Cookies, Measurement Error, and Experimental Design. Journal of Modern Applied Statistical Methods 2(2), 293–305.
Krosnick, J. (1999). Survey Research. Annual Review Of Psychology, 50(1), 537-567.
Myhill, A., & Bradford, B. (2013). Overcoming cop culture? Organizational justice and police officers’ attitudes toward the public. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 36(2), 338-356.
Odgers, C., Caspi, A., Bates, C., Sampson, R., & Moffitt, T. (2012). Systematic social observation of children’s neighborhoods using Google Street View: a reliable and cost-effective method. Journal Of Child Psychology And Psychiatry, 53(10), 1009-1017.
Paoline, E. A., Myers, S. M., & Worden, R. E. (2000). Police culture, individualism, and community policing: Evidence from two police departments. Justice Quarterly, 17(3), 575-605.
Thome, S. (1998). Ethical and Representational Issues in Qualitative Secondary Analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 8(4), 547-555.
Waddington, P. A. (1999). Police (canteen) sub-culture. An appreciation. British Journal of Criminology, 39(2), 287-309.
Wright, K. (2006). Researching Internet-Based Populations: Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Survey Research, Online Questionnaire Authoring Software Packages, and Web Survey Services. Journal Of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10(3), 00.
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