Cognitive Psychology and Application to Learning Instruction

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Table of Contents

Gestalt Theory
Information Processing Theory
Multi-store Model of Memory
Reducing Prejudice Using Cognitive Principles
Reducing Stereotyping Using Cognitive Principles
References

A number of cognitive learning theories exist including Gestalt theory, schema theory, multi-store theory, and informational processing theory. All these theories are often invoked when giving instructions to students at various levels. In the late 1950s, some psychology scholars came up with what is popularly referred to as cognitive sciences, which is often considered a cognitive revolution in the field of education.

Based on this, scholars underscore the fact that educationists should combine psychological knowledge, anthropological research, and the major principle of linguistics in disseminating knowledge to students. Consequently, the major concepts derived in the fields of artificial brainpower, computer science, and neurosciences are seen as the most critical in designing instructional materials (Hewstone, Rubin, & Willis, 2002).

Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky were the two psychological scholars who extensively participated in promoting cognitive learning. Cognitive psychologists are of the view that learning is a continuous process that entails conversion of information in the surrounding into a reliable knowledge that can perhaps be accumulated safely in the human brain. Therefore, the theory of cognitive psychology, as far as learning is concerned, focuses on some aspects including the following:

A positive view of growth, which focuses on cognizant judgment
Active construction of thoughtfulness
The changes that take place as children go through an education system
Description of cognitive processes

Gestalt Theory

Gestalt theory is one of the theories of cognitive learning that focuses on the role of human consciousness in promoting learning. It opposes the view that human consciousness can perhaps be broken down into smaller elements. Some of the theorists who participated in the development of the theory include Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Kohler. These theorists played a major role in ensuring that the role of perception in learning was understood.

The scholars were of the view that perception is only of value when seen as a whole. Based on this, it is understood that the brain functions in a holistic, comparable, and analogous way, implying that it has a self-organizing predisposition. In other words, it can be concluded that the summation of the parts is different from the parts themselves.

The theory suggests that the sum of the parts interferes with the visual recognition of figures in individuals since the whole would always take precedence, as compared to the simple contours and arcs. Gestalt means shape or figure in the German language. Theorists allied to the Gestalt theory believe that learning among people is an outcome of good perception while poor perception automatically leads to poor learning, particularly among adults (Groeger, 2002).

Gestalt theory has six principles which are used in interpreting learning systems in the field of education. The first principle is referred to as the law of good form. This means the learning results would be strong if only the conditions are favorable. In this regard, form is the most primitive unit as far as perception is concerned.

When people perceive something, they tend to pick the form since it is the simplest. Gestalt scholars observe that people’s experiences and their behavior tend to influence their perceptions. The second principle is the law of figure, which is also referred to as the ground discrimination principle. The principle suggests that an individual sees several figures as he or she tries to interpret an image. This implies that the two forms have equal importance.

The source of the message influences an individual’s perception, implying that an individual would most probably see a vase in case the sender wants to express the vase while the same person might see the black background in case it is the intention of the sender. It follows therefore that an individual would easily confuse a figure with the ground. The law of proximity is the third principle which suggests that an individual tends to view things that are close to each other as being similar.

In this regard, people will understand something better in case the presenter is closer. The fourth principle is the law of similarity. It states that similar things form a group. The fifth law is the law of closure which states that people tend to close gaps whenever a word is misspelled. Finally, gestalt theory talks about the law of continuity (Zettle, Rains, & Hayes, 2011).

Information Processing Theory

The theory was formulated in the United States through the experimental tradition in psychology. The scholars holding this view believe that the human brain operates in the same way as the computer, meaning that the human brain has several systems that are charged with information processing. However, some rules and strategies are often invoked in interpreting information. The theory suggests that the brain has limited capacity for information processing and storage.

Three key processes take place as far as information processing is concerned. The first step is encoding which is equivalent to the computer input (MacRae, & Bodenhausen, 2001). The information is stored after encoding and is retrieved whenever needed.

The theorists holding this view are of the opinion that the computer was designed based on the activities of the human brain. Since the computer can be made a powerful information processing machine, the human mind can be improved through teaching and continuous guidance as well.

Multi-store Model of Memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin developed the theory in the late 1960s. The theory talks about the structure of the memory. Theorists allied to this perspective suggest that human memory is divided into three major stages including the sensory memory, short term memory, and the long term memory. Such scholars believe that each memory has its specific role. In other words, the theory sums up the memory processes and their functions.

For instance, an individual hears and feels something, but he or she has the capacity of remembering very few concepts. The sensory memory is the most sophisticated since it contains receptors which store information that gets into the brain through the senses. The energy in the sensory memory has the capacity of changing form one state to another. The environment is the main source of information.

It provides information, such as light, sound, and smell, but the brain has the capacity to interpret electrical energy only (Mansell, 2004). The receptor cells have the ability to convert electrical energy to other forms that the human brain can perhaps understand better.

The memory is often created during the process of change of energy from electrical to other forms. However, the memory created is short-lasting, for only half a second for vision and three seconds for hearing. The human sense organs do not have the capacity to store unprocessed information for long.

Short term memory is relied upon in storing information temporarily in the human brain. Some scholars call this type of brain a working memory. In fact, it is directly related to what an individual thinks about in any given time. Freud suggested that short term memory is the conscious memory that is often produced when an individual pays attention to an exterior incentive or an interior thought.

The third memory type is the long term memory which offers lasting preservation of information. The memory does not have a limit as far as information storage is concerned. However, it is never measured since the process is tiresome (Reyna, 2012).

Reducing Prejudice Using Cognitive Principles

Cognitive psychology principles can be employed successfully in reducing the effects of prejudice in test items. This is made possible through intergroup contact, which has proven effective as far as reducing prejudice is concerned. Pettigrew and Tropp advised that developing knowledge about an out-group is one of the ways of reducing prejudice. An out-group refers to a social grouping that an individual does not identify with, mainly because of ethnicity, religion, or even skin color.

The term is used extensively in defining the social identity theory which states that an individual would be uncomfortable associating with members of a different group whom s/he does not recognize. Conflicts among groups are resolved through enhancing out-group knowledge where individuals are made to understand that their culture is not superior in any way as compared to that of other people.

They have to value the beliefs and cultural values of other people and respect them in public places (Arch, & Craske, 2006). Prejudice can as well be reduced through minimizing anxiety among members of an intergroup. In other words, individuals should be informed that the views of others count in case they want to come up with a constructive policy or problem solving strategy.

Finally, prejudice is minimized through sympathy and perspective taking. This means that people should try to view the tribulations of others in their own points of view. In other words, an individual should be instructed to do to others what he or she would expect them to do to him or her.

Reducing Stereotyping Using Cognitive Principles

One of the major ways of reducing stereotyping is enhancing internal motivation and keeping off from external pressure. Scholars of cognitive psychology suggest that racial discrimination occurs mainly because of unconscious prejudice. This suggests that stereotyping is often unintentional. This affects people in their change processes since they lack motivation (Twyman, 2007).

Based on this, the human mind has a number of modular adaptations that serve several functions. In this regard, human behavior is simply an output of the psychological adaptations that evolve to address problems in the modern societies. This shows that the human mind is always in the process of evolving to counter the new challenges posed by the modern society. As new things emerge, the human mind develops some mechanisms to counter them.

Many scholars support this view, even though there are those who are opposed to it. Stereotyping would be reduced greatly in case people are encouraged to increase perspective taking and empathy whenever they deal with those in need.

Cognitive psychology suggests that human beings perceive things based on the environment. In case the environment is favorable, the perception will be positive. Therefore, an enabling environment should always be created in the surrounding to support good perception. This would definitely end stereotypes.

References

Arch, J., & Craske, M.G. (2008). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders: Different Treatments, Similar Mechanisms. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 15(4), 263-271.

Groeger, J (2002). Trafficking in cognition: applying cognitive psychology to driving. Transportation Research Part F. Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 5(4), 235-248.

Hewstone, M., Rubin, M., & Willis, H. (2002). Intergroup bias. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 575–604.

MacRae, C., & Bodenhausen, G. (2001). Social cognition: Categorical person perception. British Journal of Psychology, 92(1), 239–255.

Mansell, W (2004). Cognitive psychology and anxiety. Psychiatry, 3(4), 6–10.

Reyna, V, (2012). A new institutionism: Meaning, memory, and development in Fuzzy-Trace Theory”. Judgment and Decision Making, 7(3): 332–359.

Twyman, J.S. (2007). A new era of science and practice in behavior analysis. Association for Behavior Analysis International: Newsletter, 30(3), 1–4.

Zettle, R.D., Rains, J.C., & Hayes, S.C. (2011). Processes of Change in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Cognitive Therapy for Depression: A Mediation Reanalysis of Zettle and Rains. Behavior Modification, 35(3), 265–283.

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