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Historically, there have been two major perspectives on the role of the brain in the cognition and localization of higher cognitive functions. One of the viewpoints, phrenology, states that all cognitive faculties and traits are separately controlled by specific and originally fixed areas and structures of the brain (Mareschal, Sirois, Johnson & Westermann, 2007, p.92). The second and the newer approach suggests that personality traits and higher cognitive functions can be associated only with the cerebral cortex, which works as a whole, so cognitive functions can by performed by several different structures of the specified area. In addition, “it is also postulated that the effects on cognitive functions due to cortical lesions was due to the extent of damaged tissue, but not on the localization of it” (Mareschal et al, 2007, p.93). Nowadays, these two positions are combined in explaining the mechanisms of brain functioning as they relate to cognition.
The primary stage of cognition, sensation and perception, is possible owing to the presence of the sensory apparatus, or groups of cells (for instance, sensitive cells of peripheral nerves, neurotransmitters) and their interconnections which receive information about the environment and deliver it to the Central Nervous system. Sensory information from the external environment (e.g., visual, olfactory, auditory, gustatory, tactile) as well as internal information (e.g. e.g. blood pressure) penetrates the nervous system at the level of brain stem and midbrain, which identify the signal and connect it to the dendrites of the somatosensory cortex. At this level, the first signal system might produce a reflective response to the signal in case the stimulus matches certain already existing sensory patterns.
Processing of sensory stimuli is attributed to practically all parts of the cerebral cortex; in particular, frontal, parietal and temporal lobes are associated with understanding language and speech; the occipital and (to certain extent) parietal lobes are proven to perform visual processing; the parietal lobe also processes the stimuli, deriving from the sense of touch, whereas auditory stimuli are processed in the temporal lobe (Sternberg, 1999, p.121). As one can assume, some functions are duplicated in two or more areas, but clinical studies suggest that the lesion of Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area create irreversible changes in the language function; in particular, the former structure is associated with the expression of language, whereas the latter is responsible for the understanding of speech (Mareschal et al, 2007, p.95). The function of vision is nowadays believed to be performed by higher-order sensory cortices, associated with such specific characteristics of the object as color, shape, contrast and speed, which are located in different areas of the cerebral cortex. The interconnections between these cortices ensure the holistic perception of the object in the environment. Sensory integration, combination of stimuli and comprehension of several sensory messages at the same time constitute the function of the parietal lobe.
Further, due to the cortical folding and optimal connection between the neurons, the sensory information is further processed by the frontal lobe which first generates the mental response to the new message. In particular, the frontal lobe coordinates the abstractive thinking process which allows understanding the message and drawing the necessary logical relationships. This brain area is also responsible for problem-solving, emotional response, judgment and reflection, which in complex shape the individual’s attitude towards the contents of the message.
Inherent is also the capacity of the brain to store information about the incoming signals. As Sternberg states, “The ability of the brain to create memories is due to the capacity of neurons and neural systems to change from one ‘homeostatic state to another” (Sternberg, 1999, p.112), so under the influence of the stimuli – induced changes in activity, neurons are transformed at the molecular level so that these transformations reflect the specified activity. In fact, human memory is constructed by a number of areas in the neocortex and the older areas like the hippocampus Craik & Lockhart, 1972, p. 678).
One of the prominent cases of both irreversible changes in brain functioning and substitution is the outcome of the brain I injury which Phineas Gage received. As a result of the workplace accident, the man’s brain was stabbed vertically by a large iron tube. The contemporary clinicians reported that man’s recovery was very slow, and at first his speech was incoherent (Mareschal et al, 2007, p.98). Obviously, a part of the frontal lobe was damaged as a result of the accident as the tube drove through the crown of his head. However, the greatest damage can be attributed to the temporal and parietal lobes, the former area should have been literally divided into two parts. The serious injury of two centers in the brain located in the frontal and temporal lobes and responsible for speech probably resulted in difficulties with language expression which emerged at the beginning of recuperation. However, due to the fact that Broca’s area remained relatively intact, it probably took additional load, originally distributed among the other centers. Furthermore, it needs to be noted that as a result of the accident the man lost the ability to see through his left eye, which once again proves the idea of the interconnection of sensory cortices, responsible for vision, several of which were damaged irreparably so that the vision function did not recover fully.
Reference
Mareschal, D. Sylvain Sirois, Mark H. Johnson & Gert Westermann. (2007). Neuroconstructivism: How the brain constructs cognition. Oxford University Press
Sternberg, R. (1999). The nature of cognition. MIT Press
Craik, F.I.M., & Lockhart, R.S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,11, 671-684
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