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Introduction
Learning theories refer to frameworks that explain the process of learning through absorption, dispensation, and retention of information (Ryckman, 2007). Learning is affected by factors such as emotions, cognition, experience, and environment.
These factors determine effectiveness of information acquisition and retention by individuals. Behaviorist psychologists describe learning as a form of conditioning that necessitates inclusion of rewards and goals in order to be effective (Ryckman, 2007).
In contrast, constructivist psychologists believe that learning mainly depends on an individual’s experiences.
Vital aspects considered in explication of learning theories include observational learning processes, role of the unconscious, role of internal cognitive processes, and efficacy. These aspects are important in learning because they serve different functions that impart knowledge.
Observational learning processes
Observational learning is a process of acquiring knowledge through observation, retention, and imitation of behaviors exhibited by other people (Fryling et al, 2011).
It is mainly associated with research work conducted by Albert Bandura, a psychologist who developed the social learning theory. Observational learning involves four main processes that include:
- Attention
- Retention
- Reproduction
- Motivation
Attention
Attention is an important aspect of observational learning. Concentrating on other people’s behaviors and their outcomes is necessary for effective observational learning (Fryling et al, 2011).
Attention enhances learning by ensuring that individuals take great interest in observing behaviors and their outcomes. Lack of attention leads to poor learning, which causes adoption of inappropriate behaviors.
Retention
After observing other people’s behaviors, individuals store what they have observed from others in form of mental pictures or representations (Fryling et al, 2011).
These images are later used to elicit certain behaviors similar to behaviors observed in others. An example of the effect of retention is peer pressure that makes young people behave in a similar manner in certain situations.
Reproduction
Reproduction is a process that involves conversion of stored mental images into explicit behaviors (Fryling et al, 2011). An individual behaves as he/she saw others behave.
Reproduction is a process that clearly defines and demonstrates observational learning. People repeat behaviors that they observe and copy from others.
Motivation
Motivation is another process involved in observational learning. Individuals only repeat certain behaviors if they are motivated to repeat them because of their positive outcomes (Fryling et al, 2011). Motivation determines whether an individual repeats an observed behavior or not.
If a behavior is beneficial, it is repeated. However, if it is not beneficial, an individual is not motivated to repeat it. There is a relationship between observational learning and various forms of conditioning because observational learning incorporates certain aspects of conditioning.
Role of the unconscious
The unconscious mind comprises mental processes that occur without mental stimulation. These processes include memory, motivation, and thought processes (Bargh and Morsella, 2008). Constituents of the unconscious include:
- Repressed memories
- Habits and desires
- Automatic reactions
- Suppressed feelings and emotions
The unconscious is one of the three states of mind that affect behavior significantly. Research has revealed that the unconscious is affected by factors such as intuition, unawareness, and habits (Bargh and Morsella, 2008).
Psychologists have presented varied explanations concerning the role of the unconscious. For example, psychologist Wilhelm Wundt disagreed with the existence of unconscious processes.
He based his argument on definition of psychology as study of conscious mental states (Bargh and Morsella, 2008). The unconscious plays an important role in influencing behavior and other mental processes.
For example, research has revealed that unconscious processes play an important role in creativity. They influence and facilitate generation of ideas (Titter and Baaren, 2012). The unconscious plays a critical role in the process of dreaming and generation of automatic thoughts and ideas.
In addition, the unconscious is responsible for storage of suppressed or forgotten memories, and storage of implicit knowledge (Bargh and Morsella, 2008).
Therefore, the unconscious stores repressed feelings, emotions, desires, and memories, which are available to the conscious mind upon stimulation.
The role of internal cognitive processes
Cognition refers to ability of the mind to process information and use acquired knowledge to make decisions and solve problems (Zentall, 2006).
As such, cognition involves processing received information and applying acquired knowledge to perform mental functions such as thinking. There are three types of internal cognitive processes:
- Perception
- Judgment
- Attention
Intuition
Intuition refers to the process of knowledge acquisition without reason or mental stimulation (Zentall, 2006). It is mainly associated with the right hemisphere of the brain.
Attention
On the other hand, attention refers to ability to concentrate on a single activity or environmental aspect for a certain period while ignoring other activities to avoid distraction (Zentall, 2006). Divided attention refers to an act of concentrating on more than one task at a time.
This practice is common in modern society because people have many responsibilities and tasks to handle. Attention is an important aspect of learning that determines quantity and quality of information absorbed.
A student paying attention during a test (Ryckman, 2007)
Perception
Perception refers to ability of an individual to identify, organize, and interpret sensory information in order to understand various aspects of the environment (Zentall, 2006). It involves transmission of impulses from the nervous system to the brain for interpretation.
Perception involves three distinct stages that include selection of stimuli, organization of chosen stimuli, and interpretation of stimuli. Selection involves choosing between different stimuli transmitted by the nervous system to the brain.
Important stimuli are selected for organization while unimportant stimuli are ignored. Organization refers to arrangement of impulses into patterns that enhance understanding of the environment (Ryckman, 2007).
On the other hand, interpretation involves elucidation of stimuli through formation of associations between stimuli and responses. This process is affected by personal beliefs, experiences, values, and psychological needs.
Interpretation of information involves formation of patterns between different stimuli. Interpretation has different outcomes in different people because it is subjective. Examples of outcomes include:
- Smiling
- Vomiting
- Sneezing
- Withdrawal
- Shouting
Judgment
Judgment refers to the process of evaluating information in order to make a decision. It involves use of rules, facts, knowledge, intuition, and experiences to make informed decisions (Ryckman, 2007).
Poor or wrong judgment may lead to poor decisions that cause inappropriate behavior. Judgment is mainly influenced by experience and perception.
Efficacy
Efficacy refers to ability to achieve goals and attain desired outcomes. Self-efficacy refers to a measure of an individual’s ability to handle tasks and achieve desired results (Ryckman, 2007). It affects every area of human behavior.
Efficacy determines personal beliefs that influence achievement and power to control situations in order to achieve goals. As such, it determines an individual’s power to do tasks, and influences decisions made. Self-efficacy influences human behavior in several ways. These include:
- It determines thought patterns and responses
- It determines effectiveness of learning
- It influences decision-making process
- Affects motivation
- Affects choices that influence behavior
Efficacy is affected by factors such as physiological factors, social persuasion, and experience. Sources of self-efficacy include verbal persuasion, mastery experiences, and vicarious experience (Ryckman, 2007).
Observing other people succeed is a source of motivation to work for personal success. In addition, positive communication can be used to boost learning. A positive mood effectively boosts self-efficacy and gives an individual strength to work hard in order to achieve goals and objectives.
Conclusion
Learning theories refer to frameworks that explain the process of learning through information absorption and retention. Processes such as cognition, emotions, and experiences affect learning in various ways.
Observational learning involves four steps that include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. These processes work together to enhance learning through interpretation of sensory information and behaviors.
The unconscious is an important aspect of the brain. It contains suppressed memories and feelings, automatic reactions, and unfulfilled desires. It controls dreaming and development of certain automatic reactions. An important aspect of learning is the role played by cognitive processes.
The three main types of internal cognitive processes include perception, judgment, and attention. They influence the process of learning and its outcomes. Efficacy is an important aspect of the learning process.
Self-efficacy is belief in personal power to complete tasks and achieve desired outcomes.
It affects all aspects of human behavior because it determines effectiveness of learning, influences thought patterns and responses, and affects the process of making decisions. Aspects that promote self-efficacy include motivation and positive mood.
References
Bargh, J., and Morsella, E. (2008). The Unconscious Mind. Perspective Psychology Science, 3(1), 73-79.
Fryling, M., Johnston, C., and Hayes, L. (2011). Understanding Observational Learning: An Interbehavioral Approach. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 27(1), 191-203.
Ryckman, R. (2007). Theories of Personality. New York: Cengage learning.
Titter, S., and Baaren, R. (2012). Creativity: the role of Unconscious Processes in Idea Generation. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 7(1), 21-27.
Zentall, R. (2006). Imitation: Definitions, Evidence, and Mechanisms. Animal Cognition, 9, 335-353.
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