Developmental Differences in Memory Over Lifespan

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Table of Contents

Abstract
Introduction
Behavioral theory
Classic condition theory
Cognitive theory
Four basic stages in proposed in Cognitive theory
References

Abstract

A hypothesis can be defined as an interrelated assertion which tries to provide information of a given phenomenon. It binds together various facts in order to provide a single explanation for certain occurrences. A theory is a cycle with four main steps. The first step involves the act of making observations, formulation of hypotheses, collection of data and finally the explanation of the hypotheses using the data obtained from the findings.

With the above elaboration of a theory, we can conclude that human development theories involve various stages which try to explain why human beings behave the way they do at various different stages in their life. In this study, theories will help us understand different stages of human lifespan. However, this paper shall discus much during childhood. This is because significant changes are usually observed during the early life of human lifespan.

Introduction

In the development process, there are three fundamental stages which enable us to evaluate the significant changes which occur within a human body physically, emotionally and mentally. They include growth, maturation and finally learning. Growth takes place within our body via metabolic processes which occur inside the body. The resultant changes include body increase in size, weight increment, physical changes, sexual and emotional maturity among others. Different body organism increase in size as the age advances. In plants, growth is usually continuous until their death as opposed to humans where growth is limited to different stages where it eventually stops at a certain stage, till death.

While growth refers to the multiplication of the number of individual units or cells in the body, maturation on the other hand can be defined as the successive progress of the individual’s appendage land organs in relation to the capacity to perform and the reflects of hereditarily approved prototypes of performance. Such changes are irreversible as long as environmental factors remain normal throughout the process (Shing, & Lindenberger, 2011).

Psychoanalytic theory

Characteristics	oral	Anal	Phallic
Time period	From birth to 18 months	From 18 months to around 3 years.	This stage is approximated to be from third to seven years
Pleasurable	Tongue, mouth and lips	Bladder, rectum and anus	Genital experience pleasure at this phase.
Most pleasurable activity	Sucking during early terms and finally biting later at the final stage	At an early stage, they experience pleasure when expelling feces and urine but later they obtain pleasure at retaining feces.	Masturbation
Sources of conflict	Breast feeding termination	The training on how to use toilet	Oedipal complex in boys while Electra complex in girls

Sigmund Freud (1865-1939) proposed that humans operate in three states; the id, superego and the ego. The id hunts for self-satisfaction; the superego seeks to do what is right in terms of morals while the ego serves as a rational intermediary between the superego and the id. According to Sigmund, all human beings right from infancy undergoes a chain of psychosexual stages. He hypothesized that each of the stages is characterized by the development of sensitivity in a certain part of the body, where each stages is associated with a conflict which must be resolved before proceeding to the next stage.

If not solved, the problem gives birth to various frustrations which eventually become chronic and hence remaining a central attribute of the victim’s psychology. Freud suggested in his hypothesis that the conflict during phallic stage fallout in the Oedipal for the boys while for the girls Electra complex. During this stage, a boy develops sexual love for his birth mother and rivalry towards his father. This makes him fear reprimand from his father on or after castration. On the other hand, a girl feels sexual love for her father resulting to a feeling of inferiority since she and her mother had been castrated.

Yet, if an individual misses the conflict, s/he might be addicted to a certain stage, which becomes so pleasurable such that they are not willing to move to the next stage. If an individual fails to resolves conflicts of a given stage, they tend to retain characteristics of that stage. A classic example is when a child is fixed at oral stage might be deemed as immature. Such individuals end up engaging to excessive oral behaviors such as smoking, nail eating and drinking among others.

Behavioral theory

This theory is often concerned with observable human behavior. It mainly revolves on what they do and say in reality. Traditionally, people researchers have differentiated behavior units in terms of responses and stimuli, where stimuli are mostly associated with the environment.

Classic condition theory

In this case, we shall focus on classic conditioning theory which was developed by Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) (Garbarino, 1980). His research and theory are associated with gastric juices in the digestion of dogs. In his studies, he noted that the dog would start salivating immediately he placed the food in front of its mouth. He went further to experiment if the dog would do the same when subjected to different environment. A bell was rung before the dog was feed on several occasions. At his conclusion, he discovered that the dog started to salivate immediately the bell was rung even if the food was not availed. This led to the discovery of a condition known as psychic secretions. It was concluded that reflex is an unintentional and untrained reaction that is unconsciously triggered by a particular stimuli (Garbarino, 1980).

Cognitive theory

This theory comprises various aspects which tackles how human beings came into organizing, treating, transforming and exchanging information among other factors. Other phenomena include sensation, imagery, retention, recalling, problem-solving skills, perception, thinking and reasoning. The main area of interest in this case lies in the processes which allow human to psychologically present proceedings that become apparent in the ecosystem. Freud and Piaget (1896-1980) made great impact in the psychology of the children (Ingleby, 1983). Freud advanced on personality development while Piaget invested his time in mode of thought.

According to him, development process is more of adaptation where children continue to interact with their surroundings (Ingleby, 1983). Right at the very beginning of a child, simple reflex gradually adjust their range of characters to meet the demands of their surroundings. When playing, children tend to invent a range of schemas. These are cognitive structures which are developed by people in order to best fit in their environment.

He believed that adaptation involves two major processes-assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation enables individual take new information and interpreting it. On the other hand, accommodation enables humans to change their schemas so as to best fit in the world’s environment. Eventually, a state of equilibrium is established. At this state, a child is able to assimilate new experience in terms of models which s/he obtains through accommodation. However, this stage alternates from a state of balance to a state of imbalance (Steinberg, 2007).

Four basic stages in proposed in Cognitive theory

This stage is divided into four basic stages in the development of intelligence.

Sensorimotor stage

This stage last from birth to 2 years. At this juncture, infants establish the affiliation linking sensation and motor performance. In other words, they learn their hands are part of their body whereas playing toys are not.

Preoperational stage

This lasts from two to seven years. At this point, children tend to master and employ symbols and specific languages. During this stage, they tend to believe their only perspective of things. For instance, if a child is asked the reason as to why the snow falls will simply answer so that kids can play in it.

Stage of concrete operations (seven to eleven years)

At this stage the children come to master different logical procedures such as mathematics, conceptions of chain of commands, set links and measurements among others.

Stage of formal operations (11 years and older)

At this stage, the teenage are able to engage fully in scientific reasoning. They are able to understand principles such as Newton’s law. In other words, they face the reality of life and are able to understand why things and natural phenomena happens the way they do.

References

Garbarino, J. (1980). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Children and Youth Services Review, 2(4), 433 – 438.

Ingleby, D. (1983). Freud and Piaget: The phoney war. New Ideas in Psychology, 1(2), 123 – 144.

Shing, Y., & Lindenberger, U. (2011). The Development of Episodic Memory: Lifespan Lessons. Child Development Perspectives, 5(2), 148 – 155.

Steinberg, L. (2007). Risk Taking in Adolescence: New Perspectives from Brain and Behavioral Science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(2), 55 – 59.

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