Cognitive Psychology: The Effects of Memory Conformity

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Table of Contents

Introduction
Methods Used
Critique of Developments in this Field of Research
Application to Real-world Settings
Conclusion
References

Introduction

The selected study investigated the effects of memory conformity between individuals who had witnessed and discussed a given criminal event. The study employed a novel procedure in which members of a selected dyad were allowed to watch different videos of a similar event. Each video had a particularly unique aspect that was only seen by a single witness. The experiment’s control conditions did not allow the witnesses to discuss the event seen in the videos, while in the other condition, the witnesses were encouraged to discuss the event.

All the witnesses were then subjected to individual recall tests. Seventy-one percent of the witnesses who were allowed to discuss the details of the event mistakenly recalled details that were acquired from their discussion. The witnesses’ susceptibility to the memory conformity effects was not influenced by the age differences between the younger (18-30 years) and older (60-80 years) respondents.

The article discusses the possible social and cognitive mechanisms that cause memory distortions due to conformity. The article’s case study was the Oklahoma bombing incident in 1995. Previously published studies on memory conformity focused on presenting co-witness information indirectly using recall questionnaires, while other studies incorporated co-witness interaction into their experimental design. Eyewitness testimony is of critical importance to the justice system (Hodges, 2017). Thus, the study’s research question was relevant since it assessed the effectiveness of eyewitness testimony after the witnesses had discussed the particular criminal event. The case study of the selected article focuses on an incident in which the key evidence was from eyewitness testimonies of individuals who worked at Elliot’s Body Shop at the time.

Methods Used

Eyewitness memory conformity research has utilized various methodological approaches over the years. Early studies tended to adopt a more qualitative approach, often employing case study methodology. However, as the field developed, there was a shift towards quantitative methodologies, with many researchers adopting experimental designs (Hodges, 2017). One of the key issues in eyewitness memory conformity research is selecting an appropriate research design. The method used must be able to control for all potential sources of error and allow for robust statistical analysis. Furthermore, it must be able to reflect real-world situations accurately (Rechdan et al., 2018).

The laboratory experiment is one of the most commonly used methods in eyewitness memory conformity research. This type of experiment allows for strict control over variables and eliminates sources of error such as observer bias (Cullen et al., 2021). However, criticism has been leveled at laboratory experiments for being contrived and unrealistic. As a result, many researchers have sought to develop more ecologically valid methods.

One such method is the field experiment. This type of experiment occurs in a naturalistic setting and seeks to replicate real-world conditions as closely as possible. Field experiments have been shown to produce more reliable and valid results than laboratory experiments. However, they can be logistically difficult to conduct, and there is always the potential for external factors to interfere with results. The selected article utilized a novel procedure in which members of a chosen dyad were allowed to watch videos of a similar event. Each video had a particularly unique aspect that was only seen by a single witness. The experiment’s control conditions did not allow the witnesses to discuss the event seen in the videos, while in the other condition, the witnesses were encouraged to discuss the event.

The study comprised sixty students from the University of Aberdeen and sixty older adults recruited from the local community. Before the actual test, all the participants underwent a series of vision tests, including the Snellen chart, contrast sensitivity chart, and the standard reading test. The older adults were also screened for dementia using the Memory Impairment Screening Test. The researchers utilized a two-by-two between-subject design. The participants were divided into two distinct age groups: the young (18-30) and the old (60-80). These two groups had to undergo one of two conditions: individual recall or co-witness recall (Gabbert et al., 2003). The study utilized a simulated crime event that allowed the researchers to present different features of the event and simulate different witness perspectives.

The study explored the type of post-event information (PEI) that may be acquired from engaging in a conversation with another witness of the same event. Memory conformity, as a source of PEI, had been largely neglected by researchers dealing with eyewitness memory. All the existing studies had managed to incorporate co-witness information in a recall questionnaire or incorporate it into their experimental designs (Gabbert et al., 2003).

The selected research method allowed the researchers to conclude memory conformity after discussing all the collected data. Previous studies have tried to simulate what might happen in witnessing situations. Still, only Wright et al. (2000, Experiment 2) came close to simulating the closest environment to what happens in witnessing situations (Gabbert et al., 2003). Previously published studies on memory conformity had exclusively focused on young adults as the participants. However, this study focused on younger and older adults to assess whether age influenced the research outcome. Previously published works suggested that older adults were more likely to rely heavily on getting another witness’s account of an event to remember what had happened fully.

Critique of Developments in this Field of Research

The critique of developments in the eyewitness memory conformity field of research has been an ongoing endeavor since the early days of the field. Current research has expanded our understanding of social and cognitive mechanisms that underlie memory conformity effects (Rechdan et al., 2018). However, methodological and theoretical developments have raised new challenges for researchers. This paper reviews current research on developments in eyewitness memory conformity, highlighting recent progress and outlining future directions for the field.

In recent years, there has been a considerable amount of research on eyewitness memory conformity. This paper will provide a critical review of current developments in this area, with a focus on methodological and theoretical developments. Current research has employed various methods, including experimental, observational, and field studies. Theoretical developments have focused on social and cognitive mechanisms underlying memory conformity effects (Monds et al., 2019).

Recent methodological developments have included more sophisticated analyses, such as multilevel modeling, to examine memory conformity effects. These analytical advances have yielded important insights into the nature of memory conformity effects. For example, recent studies have shown that memory conformity effects are moderated by factors such as group size and prior knowledge.

Theoretical developments in this area have focused on social and cognitive mechanisms underlying memory conformity effects. Social mechanisms include the influence of others on one’s memories, while cognitive mechanisms involve how information is processed and remembered. One current theoretical model incorporating social and cognitive mechanisms is the Social Comparison Theory of Memory Conformity (Monds et al., 2019). According to this model, people compare their memories to those of others to assess their accuracy. This comparison process can lead to memory distortion if people believe others’ memories are more accurate than their own (Thorley, 2018). Overall, current research in eyewitness memory conformity has made significant strides in understanding the nature of these phenomena.

Since the early days of research into Eyewitness Memory Conformity (EMC), there have been several critiques of developments in the field. This article will consider some of the most recent research in EMC and identify studies that have critiqued current developments in the field. We will also consider how the field has evolved regarding methodology and theory since seminal articles on EMC were published. One of the most essential methodological criticisms of current EMC research is that it often fails to consider the circumstances under which witnesses may be exposed to post-event information (Ito et al., 2019; Sousa & Jaeger, 2022).

For example, many studies assume that witnesses are passive observers who are presented with information about an event after it has happened. However, witnesses often seek out information about an event, particularly if it is something they feel deeply about or are personally invested in. This active search for information can expose witnesses to various sources of post-event information, including media reports, discussions with other witnesses, and even rumors and gossip. These different information sources can influence eyewitness memory, but they are often ignored in research designs.

Another criticism of current EMC research is that it focuses too narrowly on memory conformity effects without considering the underlying social and cognitive mechanisms that might give rise to these effects. For example, many studies measure whether conformity occurs between witnesses without asking why it might occur or what causes it to occur. Loftus and Palmer published the first of these critiques in 1974. They argued that the methods used in previous research had failed to consider the social and cognitive mechanisms underlying memory conformity effects (Sousa et al., 2020).

They also pointed out that the importance of eyewitness testimony had been underestimated and that more work was needed to reduce memory conformity. Since then, there have been several methodological advances in the study of eyewitness memory conformity. However, there is still much work to be done in this area, particularly in understanding the cognitive and social mechanisms underlying memory conformity effects.

Application to Real-world Settings

Reducing eyewitness memory conformity is a research area with great potential for applications in real-world settings. Eyewitness memory conformity occurs when another person’s account influences one individual’s recall of an event (Ito et al., 2019; Sousa & Jaeger, 2022). This phenomenon can have significant implications for the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, which is often relied upon in criminal investigations and prosecutions. A growing body of evidence demonstrates that memory conformity can be reduced through various interventions, such as individual debriefings and group discussions (Beekman, 2018; Mojtahedi, 2020).

Eyewitness memory conformity is a well-documented phenomenon in which others’ accounts influence people’s memories of an event (Capan et al., 2022). This research has important implications for real-world settings, where eyewitness testimony is often critical to determining the course of justice.

There are many potential applications for reducing eyewitness memory conformity in real-world settings. For example, police officers could be trained to avoid leading questions when interviewing witnesses (Silva & Jaeger, 2021). In court, attorneys could present expert testimony about the impact of social pressure on memory. Moreover, jurors could be instructed to consider the potential for eyewitnesses to conform to memories when evaluating the credibility of their testimony (Mori, 2018).

The benefits of applying this research to real-world settings are clear. When witnesses feel less pressure to conform to their memories, they are more likely to give accurate testimony. This can help law enforcement officials solve crimes and ensure that innocent people are not wrongly convicted. It can also help provide closure for victims and their families who might otherwise never know what happened.

Additionally, these findings have important implications for real-world settings where eyewitness testimony is often used. For example, eyewitnesses to crimes are often interviewed by police soon after the event occurred. If memory conformity is a concern, interviewers could use the debriefing intervention to reduce the risk of contamination between witnesses (Beekman, 2018; Mojtahedi, 2020). In addition, groups of witnesses could be brought together to discuss their memories of the event before giving official statements, which would also reduce memory conformity (Ginet et al., 2019). Overall, there is great potential for applying this research to improve the accuracy and reliability of eyewitness testimony in real-world settings.

Conclusion

The selected study investigated the effects of memory conformity between individuals who had witnessed and discussed a given criminal event. The experiment’s control conditions did not allow the witnesses to discuss the event seen in the videos, while in the other condition, the witnesses were encouraged to discuss the event. The study explored the type of post-event information (PEI) that may be acquired from engaging in a conversation with another witness of the same event. Reducing eyewitness memory conformity is a research area with great potential for applications in real-world settings.

This phenomenon can have significant implications for the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, which is often relied upon in criminal investigations and prosecutions. In court, attorneys could present expert testimony about the impact of social pressure on memory. The benefits of applying this research to real-world settings are clear. Additionally, these findings have important implications for real-world settings where eyewitness testimony is often used. For example, eyewitnesses to crimes are often interviewed by police soon after the event occurred.

References

Beekman, G. (2018). The Effect of Misleading Co-Witness Information and Self-Esteem on the Accuracy of Eyewitness Memory (Doctoral dissertation). Web.

Capan, D., Eskenazi, T., & Gülgöz, S. (2022). Dishonesty in public reports of confidence: Metacognitive monitoring of memory conformity. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. Web.

Cullen, H. J., Paterson, H. M., & van Golde, C. (2021). Stopping crime? The effect of crime re-enactments on eyewitness memory. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 28(2), 286-309. Web.

Gabbert, F., Memon, A., & Allan, K. (2003). Memory conformity: can eyewitnesses influence each other’s memories for an event?. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 533-543.

Ginet, M., Chakroun, N., Colomb, C., & Verkampt, F. (2019). Can the cognitive interview reduce memory conformity in an interview context?. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 34(4), 381-391. Web.

Hodges, B. H. (2017). Conformity and divergence in interactions, groups, and culture. In S. G. Harkins, K. D. Williams, & J. M. Burger (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of social influence (pp. 87–105). Oxford University Press.

Ito, H., Barzykowski, K., Grzesik, M., Gülgöz, S., Gürdere, C., Janssen, S. M.,… & Mori, K. (2019). Eyewitness memory distortion following co-witness discussion: A replication of Garry, French, Kinzett, and Mori (2008) in ten countries. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 8(1), 68-77. Web.

Mojtahedi, D. (2020). Memory conformity during co-witness discussions: Issues and considerations. Psychreg Journal of Psychology (PJP), 4(2), 1-7. Web.

Monds, L. A., Howard, M., Paterson, H. M., & Kemp, R. I. (2019). The effects of perceived memory ability on memory conformity for an event. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 26(4), 580-592. Web.

Mori, K. (2018). Eyewitness Memory Distortion Following Co-Witness Discussion: A Replication of Garry, French, Kinzett, and Mori (2008) in Ten Countries. Web.

Rechdan, J., Hope, L., Sauer, J. D., Sauerland, M., Ost, J., & Merckelbach, H. (2018). The effects of co-witness discussion on confidence and precision in eyewitness memory reports. Memory, 26(7), 904-912. Web.

Silva, R. F. P., & Jaeger, A. (2021). False reports of an accomplice in a crime scene: conformity effects on memory confidence and accuracy. Psico-USF, 26, 153-163. Web.

Sousa, W. S., & Jaeger, A. (2022). Memory conformity for high-confidence recognition of faces. Memory & Cognition, 1-10. Web.

Sousa, W. S., Santos, M. P. D. F., & Jaeger, A. (2020). Theoretical aspects and practical implications of memory conformity: a review. Psicologia em Pesquisa, 14(3), 152-172. Web.

Thorley, C. (2018). Enhancing individual and collaborative eyewitness memory with category clustering recall. Memory, 26(8), 1128-1139. Web.

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