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Introduction
Stress is a state of mind that alters the mental stability and is considered to interfere in all aspects of life. Depending on the situation the magnitude of stress might vary.
Children or adolescents might also fall victims to this condition of mental disturbance and in the present context the description is concerned with those of African –American origin. It is well known that school going children or students are exposed to a variety of multicultural or multiethnic environmental conditions in some countries. Here, there may a possibility of differences that could keep some groups of students apart from coping with others which might induce a mental stress. So, there is a need to review the literature to understand the role of various factors connected to the present scenario.
In a qualitative research, previous workers studied stress along with nutrition and exercise to determine hypertension in young black male college students (Ludescher et al., 1993). From a health perspective, this study may indicate that stress was associated with hypertension. Therefore, it can be inferred that conditions or risk factors contributing to stress through hypertension need to be explored in students.
Main body
Vaccaro and Wills (1998) investigated the Made Investigations to determine whether the stress coping variables are related to substance (cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana ) use in adolescents comprising of African –American, Whites and Hispanics. They have found that the expected relationship was lower in African –Americans compared to Whites and Hianics.This study may indicate that African –American students are less vulnerable to substance use and its association with stress. However, further studies were warranted to exactly determine substance use induced stress. Previous workers have studied the life style and health behavior of African American nursing students and reported that over 80 % of the students
had excellent scores for cigarette smoking, alcohol and drug use (Adderley-Kelly & Green, 2000).This study may support the earlier report that has highlighted the role of cigarette and alcohol in association with stress.
There is also a need to identify other factors that may be likely associated with stress among African American college students.
Thompson, Anderson and Bakeman (2000) determined the role of racial identity in mediating the connection between racial socialization and acculturative stress in African American university students. They have found significant relationship between racial socialization and acculturative stress, racial socialization and racial identity, and racial identity and acculturative stress.In another study researchers have described the role of racial identity and the consequences of perceived racial discrimination in the lives of African American college students (Sellers & Shelton, 2003).This was further strengthened by another report.
Bynum, Burton, and Best (2007) described that racism has negative impact on the psychological health of African Americans. They have investigated to determine whether two types of parental racial socialization messages reduced the impact of racism on psychological functioning in college freshmen.They have found that students with more racism experiences had poorer levels of psychological functioning as indicated by higher levels of psychological stress and psychological distress. This was further strengthened by another report.
Walker et al. (2008) explored the relationships between acculturative stress and ethnic identity to depressive symptomatology and suicidal ideation in college students. They have found that acculturative stress and ethnic identity mediated the depression-suicide ideation relationship for African American but not European American college students. Hence it may be inferred that suicidal attempts were also associated with either high-acculturative stress or poor group identity.
This may act as another marker for evaluating stress in African American students.
These studies may indicate the involvement of racial differences in the episodes of stress among African American students. King (2005) reported that both racial and gender discrimination are associated with poor psychological and physical health outcomes by determining the role of cognitive appraisal as a mediator of the relationship between experiences of discrimination and affective stress reactions. Here, it can be inferred that besides race, gender has also become the target of discrimination that may be identified as another possible link to stress factors.
In view of these stress inducing conditions, there is a need to develop coping strategies that may help to overcome racial differences. Henderson et al.(2003) reported that African American women diagnosed with breast cancer were able to mange the disease by relying on prayer, avoiding negative people, developing a positive attitude, having a will to live, and receiving support from family, friends, and support groups.
This study has suggested that nurses should serve as healthcare advocates for African American women with breast cancer. Therefore, this study may indicate the importance of depending on coping strategies with no signs of racial discrimination that might lead to stress. Hence, it may appear reasonable to assume that similar coping strategies if adopted by African American students may help in better management of stress.
Further, there may be also other sources contributing to the stressful conditions in African American students.
Murphy, Wismar, and Freeman (2003) described that stress reactions are connected to terrorist attacks. They have examined stress reactions to the events of September 11, 2001 among African-American college students not directly exposed to the attacks.
They have found that many students experienced a variety of stress symptoms and distressing thoughts and feelings in response to the events of September 11, including academic problems, concerns about family and friends in the military, and fear about war.
Classen et al. (1998) have used the standard DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for acute stress disorder and examined whether the acute psychological effects of being a bystander to violence involving mass shootings in an office building predicted later posttraumatic stress symptoms. Their results indicated that being a bystander to violence is highly stressful in the short run, but acute stress reactions to such an event further predict later posttraumatic stress symptoms.
Conclusion
In the description mentioned by Murphy group it is obvious that college students were stressful after the attacks indicating the involvement of posttraumatic stress symptoms.
Hence these two reports are closely associated and further indicate a new parameter whicj is terrorism or violence. Therefore, it is reasonable to infer that stress in African -American students was linked with traumatic conditions.
References:
1. Ludescher, G., Nishiwaki, R., Lewis, D., Brown, E., Glacken, D., Jenkins, E. (1993). Black male college students and hypertension: a qualitative investigation. Health Educ Res, 8, 271-82.
2. Vaccaro, D and Wills, T.A. (1998). Stress-coping factors in adolescent substance use: test of ethnic and gender differences in samples of urban adolescents. J Drug Educ, 28,257-82.
3. Adderley-Kelly, B and Green, P.M. (2000). Health behaviors of undergraduate African American nursing students. ABNF J, 11, 7-12.
4. Thompson, C.P., Anderson, L.P., Bakeman, RA. (2000). Effects of racial socialization and racial identity on acculturative stress in African American college students. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol, 6, 196-210.
5. Sellers, R.M and Shelton, J.N (2003). The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination. J Pers Soc Psychol, 84, 1079-92.
6. Bynum, M.S., Burton, E.T., Best ,C.(2007). Racism experiences and psychological functioning in African American college freshmen: is racial socialization a buffer? Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol,13, 64-71.
7. Walker, R.L., Wingate, L.R., Obasi, E.M., Joiner, T.E.(2008). An empirical investigation of acculturative stress and ethnic identity as moderators for depression and suicidal ideation in college students. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol, 14, 75-82.
8. King, K.R. Why is discrimination stressful? The mediating role of cognitive appraisal. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol, 11, 202-12.
9. Henderson, P.D., Gore, S.V., Davis, B.L., Condon, E.H. (2003). African American women coping with breast cancer: a qualitative analysis. Oncol Nurs Forum, 30, 641-7.
10. Murphy, R.T., Wismar, K., Freeman, K. (2003). Stress symptoms among African-American college students after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. Nerv Ment Dis, 191,108-14.
11. Classen, C., Koopman, C., Hales, R., Spiegel, D. (1998). Acute stress disorder as a predictor of posttraumatic stress symptoms. Am J Psychiatry,155, 620-4.
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