American History and Politics in the 19th Century

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Explain Calhoun’s theory of nullification and his defense of it. Why did Jackson oppose Calhoun’s theory of nullification? How was the nullification crisis of 1832 settled?

In 1828, Congress passed a bill that radically increased the prices of raw goods. In the south, it was referred to as the “tariff of abominations.” The tariffs favored the North’s manufacturing industries over the South’s agricultural economy (Glowen, para. 2). South Carolina was one of the states most affected by the tariffs. During this period, many inhabitants of the south, together with slaves, left the state in search of better opportunities.

Many Southerners protested, asking for a repeal of the bill. John C. Calhoun from South Carolina, who was serving as a vice-president, wrote down one of the greatest replies to the bill. This written protest came to be known as The Theory of Nullification. In the nullification, Calhoun laid an argument calling for intervention by the state. He argued, that the Union had not been formed by people, but by individuals standing for States, this meant that the states were sovereign, but not the Union. The states made up the compact (Union) and could secede from the compact whenever they wished so.

Calhoun also argued that a state could declare any law by the federal government invalid within its borders unless the decision was overruled by three-quarters of the number of states needed to approve the constitution. If that happened, the state would have the option of accepting the verdict of the other states or secede from the Union. Congress adopted the nullification in 1833, and South Carolina passed an act that declared the federal tariffs invalid.

The arguments presented by Calhoun were not new in the United States similar theories of nullification, state freedom, and secession had been proposed in 1789. However, no action had been taken back then. When it was forwarded by Calhoun, secession was a high likelihood, especially after it was taken up by the state of South Carolina.

Through a states’ right to secede, Jackson knew that the nullification principle was both catastrophic and silly and would, certainly, lead to discord between the states. To him, nothing could cause any state to secede from the union. He saw Calhoun’s proposal as a threat to his authority since the nullification handed each state the authority to manage its affairs. In the Proclamation on Nullification, he argued that the Union was permanent, and there was no right to breaking away from it, adding, “disunion by armed force is treason” (Glowen, para. 5).

Resolution to the Nullification Crisis

The adoption of Calhoun’s argument on Nullification by South Carolina and the subsequent passage of a law in the state that declared the federal tariffs invalid put President Andrew Jackson’s administration to test. In reaction, Congress passed a bill that authorized the president to use the army to compel a state to obey the federal legislation. The two sides almost went to war, however, they reached an agreement through the Compromise Tariff of 1833 that sought to reduce the tariffs. The Act stated that import taxes would be cut gradually over the next ten years.

What was the concept of Manifest Destiny? Identify the major causes of the Mexican War and the results of the War.

Manifest Destiny was a 19^th-century notion that the US was bound to expand its borders across the continent. The phrase was mainly used by Democrats to defend the War with Mexico, however, it disappeared in the early 19^th century. The citizens of the United States believed it was their duty to widen the “boundaries of freedom” to their neighbors by sharing their idealism and principles of democracy to them (PBS, para. 3).

However, this only included people who could rule themselves, hence excluded the indigenous American tribes and persons of non-European descent. Other factors played a role as well. As the number of the 13 Native American families increased and the US economy expanded, the aspirations and efforts to advance into new land increased. For many settlers, the land was a form of wealth, revenue, and liberty. Expansion into new lands offered prospects of self-progress. The social, political, and economic reasons for this desired expansion were:

The US had a high birth rate because of immigration and a stable economic framework. The population increased from 5 million in 1800 to more than 23 million by 1850;
The US underwent two severe depressions in 1818 and 1839 it caused people to look for more land from which to earn a living;
Frontier land was cheap, and in some instances free;
The expansion opened avenues for trade and self-progress;
Land ownership was related to wealth, independence, and political power;
Sea traders saw a chance to expand and create new business opportunities by constructing West Coast ports hence increasing trade with other nations in the Pacific; (PBS, para. 5).

Mexican War

The major causes of the US-Mexico war were:

The annexation of Texas. Mexico had cautioned that it would consider annexation a call to War when it occurred, Mexico cut diplomatic relations with the US;
The boundary dispute. The US maintained that Texas was its land while Mexico made the same claims too, maintaining that its borderline with the US was at the Nueces River;
The issue of California. President Polk wanted to widen the country to the Pacific Ocean by occupying California and lands in the Southwest, a concept derived from the Manifest Destiny;
Financial Claims against Mexico. The US used a pledge by the Mexican government to pay $3 million in compensation to American citizens who had lost property during the uprising. Mexico failed on this pledge, and American creditors pushed their government to act (United States History, para. 1).

Results of the War

Mexican land, which was almost 1.7 million sq. miles, was reduced to less than 0.8 million sq. miles by 1848. 32000 sq. miles more was sold to the US in 1953, bringing the total reduction of Mexican territory to nearly 55%.

The acquisition of more land by the US created patriotism among Americans, for example, it accomplished the Democrats’ idea of Manifest Destiny and even those who had opposed the War, such as Ralph Emerson Waldo agreed that the War was a positive move. The Whigs, too, praised the War.

The US military suffered heavy losses, from about 115,000 soldiers, nearly 1,700 died in combat while more than 10,000 died from diseases.

In Mexico, the loss of more than half of their land to the Americans was a huge disgrace that incited ill-feelings against the US that have persisted even up to this day.

Describe and evaluate the Compromise of 1850 as a solution to the problem of sectional differences. Why did it prove to be only a temporary solution? What did the Kansas- Nebraska Act of 1854 accomplish?

The Compromise of 1850 was a complex group of five Acts, that were aimed at ending a 4-year conflict between the Southern slave states and the Northern free states that began after the Mexican War. The bill, drafted by Henry Clay and seconded by Democrat Stephen Douglas, prevented any state from breaking away or engaging in Civil War during the duration hence calmed the two regions for four years. The five acts are summarized below:

California was considered as an autonomous state;
New Mexico and Utah were permitted to apply the popular rule to decide on the subject of slavery, i.e. the people would vote on whether their states would be free of slavery;
The nation of Texas surrendered lands that it owned in present-day Mexico and was given $10 million to clear its debt with Mexico;
The Slave trade was put to an end in the District of Columbia, but the Compromise did not abolish slavery. The regions of Utah, Nevada, New Mexico, and Arizona would also end slavery;
The Fugitive Slave Act dictated that any federal staff that did not arrest an escaped slave was to pay a fine. It was the most contentious Act of the Compromise of 1850 and led many abolitionists to hasten their efforts in ending slavery. The Underground Railroad increased its activities, reaching its climax between 1850 and 1860. Many people who had slackened on the issue of slavery now took a strong stand against slavery. For slaves trying to build their families in the North, the Act was a tragedy. Many fled their homes and went to Canada. During the next decade, almost 20,000 blacks migrated into neighboring nations (PBS, para. 6).

The Compromise of 1854 was not liked by either side, it was just a temporary solution aimed at uniting them. The South did not like it because the influx of slaves and immigrants to the North gave them more representation in Congress, however, once the Fugitive Slave Act was abolished by the North, the South was angered by the move since slavery could only be instituted through a vote. The South felt that they had been shortchanged and, once again, the two sides were on a standoff that finally led to the Civil War.

The Kansas Nebraska Act

The Kansas Nebraska Act was adopted by Congress in May 1854. The Act established the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, opened new areas, reversed the Missouri Compromise of 1820 that had abolished slavery north of latitude 36⁰ 30’, and permitted settlers in the two territories to choose for themselves whether to abolish or permit slavery within their regions. This Act angered the Northerners who took the Missouri Compromise to be a permanent agreement between the two regions (The History Place, para. 1).

By giving the territories the right to choose whether to end or allow slavery, it was hoped that the move would cause better associations between the North and South since the South could extend slavery to new areas, while the North still had the option of ending slavery within its borders. However, those who opposed the law saw it as an acceptance by the North of the slave rule of the South.

Analyze the Emancipation Proclamation and what influence did it have on the issue of slavery

The Emancipation Proclamation was an order given by US President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War that was aimed at ending the slave trade. The order proclaimed the freedom of approximately 3.1 million of America’s 4 million slaves, 50,000 of these were liberated immediately while the rest were liberated as Union armies progressed. On September 22, 1862, Lincoln declared that he would issue official emancipation of all slaves in any state that was not under Union control by the beginning of 1863.

The Proclamation was released in two parts: the first part on September 22, 1862. The first issue was a prelude and outlined the purpose of the second section, which was effected 100 days later. It declared that all slaves would be freed permanently in all areas under the Confederacy that had not been under federal rule by January 1863. The ten states covered by the Emancipation Proclamation were mentioned in the second release, they were South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, and North Carolina. The states excluded from the rule were the slave territories of Missouri, Maryland, West Virginia, and Delaware since these states had not separated from the Union.

Also not included was Tennessee, which was divided between the Confederacy and Union. However, particular exclusions were stated for regions managed by the Union on January 1, 1863, these were present-day West Virginia, New Orleans, and13 neighboring parishes. The limitation of the Proclamation was in respect of the constitution, which Lincoln had taken an oath to uphold. Additionally, the Proclamation provided the legal structure for the liberation of almost 4 million slaves and devoted the army to ending slavery, which was a contentious resolution even in the North.

Effects on Slavery

As soon as the Proclamation was made, thousands of slaves were freed, and thousands more became free as the Union army progressed. Areas such as Hilton Head, South Carolina, and parts of North Carolina had some of the highest numbers of freed slaves. Slaves had been the engine of the unionized states. They produced food from the farms and prepared it for their white masters, sewed uniforms, worked in factories, shipping areas, and quarries, and did all the menial tasks within the farms, railways, households, and in the army. News of the declaration spread rapidly among the slaves, creating excitement and uncertainty, the news encouraged many of them to escape to areas that were under the Union.

Despite its partial application, the Proclamation had two effects. First, it interrupted agriculture dependant states as slaves were freed while others escaped from the farms. Secondly, the abolition of slavery led to the downfall of the Confederate States of America for they had not abolished slavery. The emancipation ended the Confederacy’s expectations of gaining official recognition, especially from the UK and France.

Works Cited

Glowen, Michelle. John C. Calhoun’s Theory of Nullification: A Response to Increasing Tariffs in South Carolina. 2008. Web.

PBS. The Compromise of 1850 and the Fugitive Slave Act. No Date. Web.

PBS. Manifest Destiny. 2006. Web.

The History Place. The Kansas-Nebraska Act. 1996. Web.

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