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The position of a woman in society is a topic for discussion by different scholars because of the issue’s controversial character. In this context, the Laws of Manu represent the approach to discussing the problem in the Hindu society, and it is important to compare this approach with the ideas presented in the works by such authors as Ban Zhao, Livy, Hesiod, and the author of the Middle Assyrian Laws.
The Laws of Manu provide the rules for determining the women’s specific place in the Hindu society in terms of women’s dependence on men; women’s relations with their husbands based on their obedience and devotion; such women’s virtues as chastity; and such women’s duties as manager of household activities. Therefore, the ideas on women’s dependence on men, wife and husbands’ relations, and women’s duties represented in the Laws of Manu are directly supported by Ban Zhao and the author of the Middle Assyrian Laws, when the ideas on women’s virtues are partially supported in the works written by Hesiod and discussed by Livy from the other perspective.
According to the Laws of Manu, women in the Hindu society were absolutely dependent on the men, on their fathers, brothers, or husbands. It is stated in the code that a woman must “never be independent,” and “nothing must be done independently” (254, sec. 147-148). The idea of the woman’s dependence on men is typical for many traditions and societies. Therefore, a similar idea is reflected in the work by Ban Zhao. In Lessons for Women, the Chinese scholar states, “If a wife does not serve her husband when the proper relationship between men and women and the natural order of things are neglected and destroyed” (264, par. 10).
In this context, a woman is dependent on a man because a woman is a servant for her husband, and she cannot destroy this natural order of things. The Middle Assyrian Laws can also be discussed as referred to the idea of woman’s dependence, but they accentuate the woman’s independence in relation to liability. According to the Middle Assyrian laws, if a woman has committed a crime, she is treated independently. However, in other cases, she is dependent on a man.
For instance, if a woman “has entered her husband’s house,” her dowry belongs to her husband and sons (71, sec. 29). Similar laws are described regarding the woman’s other property (71, sec. 36). From this point, the Middle Assyrian Laws recognize women as a subject to the husband, as it is also in the Laws of Manu; and in those cases, when a woman is not responsible for committing a crime. Thus, husbands and families of women are not expected to take responsibility for women’s actions.
The Laws of Manu also describe the principles of the relations between a husband and a wife. These relations are traditionally built on the idea of obedience because “she [wife] shall obey as long as he [husband] lives,” and the wife has no right to leave her husband (254, sec. 151). Furthermore, these principles also describe the society’s reactions in case of adultery or woman’s betrayal after her husband’s death (255, sec. 160-164).
The teachings by Ban Zhao partially support this position. In spite of being married, a woman is an obedient servant (264, par. 10). Nevertheless, the union of a man and a woman should lead to harmony, and men and women should know rules in order to stay together and respect each other (265, par. 16). In contrast, the idea of obedience and punishment for disobedience in a marriage is developed in the Middle Assyrian Laws. For instance, that woman who violated the laws and concealed the woman who left her husband should be punished, and she cannot be protected by her husband because she violated not only social laws but also laws in her family (70, sec. 24).
In this context, the Middle Assyrian Laws are in agreement with the Laws of Manu and can be discussed as even stricter. However, the position of Livy in describing the relations in a marriage is quite opposite because he indirectly supports the idea that in spite of the woman’s status in relations, the man’s task is to support the wife, especially in cases when there was a “horrid violation” of her honor (239, par. 58). Livy notes that “the adulterer shall not come off unpunished” because the relations of spouses are based on the idea of honor (239, par. 57). While referring to the representation of the woman’s unfaithfulness in the Laws of Manu, it is possible to concentrate on the woman’s guilt. However, from the point of Livy, the man should be discussed as guilty in this situation.
The other important aspect of representing the woman’s social position is her duties in a family. According to the Laws of Manu, women “must always be … clever in (the management of her) household affairs, careful in cleaning her utensils, and economical in expenditure” (254, sec. 150). It is important to state that this idea is almost directly reflected in Ban Zhao’s work, where she notes that the “womanly work” is one of the women’s main four qualifications (265, par. 17). From this point, the woman has the right to be respected in the family and in the society only when she performs the clearly stated list of tasks and duties that can be referred to as the women’s work and takes care of children. In this context, a woman can rely on the support and protection of the family and her husband, as it is noted in the discussed writings while reflecting the ideas presented in the Laws of Manu. These writings also explain why only a married woman can be discussed as virtuous in early societies.
Women’s virtues are also a matter for discussion in the Laws of Manu. In the text of the Laws, there are many references to the description of a “faithful wife” and a “virtuous wife” (254-255, sec. 156, 160). Thus, it is possible to speak about the role of a woman’s virtues to become a good wife. According to the Laws of Manu, a “faithful” wife does not recognize any other god than her husband, and a “virtuous” wife is obedient and a subject to her husband even after his death.
The association of a good woman with a “virtuous” wife is also typical for Ban Zhao’s work, where the female author states that a wife is virtuous when it is possible to speak about her “womanly virtue” in terms of chastity and modesty (265, par. 18). According to Livy’s From the Founding of the City, chastity is the main virtue of a woman, and a female with the “proved chastity” like Lucretia from the author’s work will be protecting her chastity and will be “uninfluenced even by the fear of death” in any situation (238, par. 57).
The author notes that only in this case, the “woman’s honor” will be then protected by the husband, as it is in the case of Collatinus and Lucretia (238, par. 57). In addition, the idea of a virtuous woman is discussed by Hesiod in Theogony. The author states that “…for one who chooses the chances of marriage, / To have and to hold a respectable wife in accord with his wishes / From the beginning and through all his days, good squabbles with bad”, and moreover, “Any who finds his children unruly will certainly lead a / Life of incessant heartache; that’s an incurable evil” (102, lines 577-581). Therefore, the virtues of a woman are often associated with her marital status.
The other important factor in explaining why the position of women in Hindu society seems to be limited is the focus on women’s nature and reputation. It is supported in the text of the laws that women can often violate her “duty towards her husband” and become “disgraced in this world” (255, sec. 164). Thus, it is assumed that a woman is not virtuous in her nature. While referring to the Middle Assyrian Laws, it is even possible to state that a woman is criminal in her nature because a range of strict laws was developed to demonstrate the punishments for women in the Assyrian society (70, sec. 5-8).
In this context, it is important to refer to the words from Work and Days by Hesiod, who describes the female to be of the “devious nature” (103, line 68). Furthermore, in Theogony, Hesiod develops the idea of a woman’s evil nature and describes Athena as the mother of all bad women, “… from her you may trace the descent of the pestilent races of women; / Dwelling among mortal men, they occasion us plenty of trouble, / Bearing with us in prosperity, never in miserable hardship” (101, lines 562-564). Thus, a woman in early writings is often discussed as disgraced because of her nature.
Referring to the comparison of different authors’ visions regarding women’s place in society, it is possible to state that the views on females are both similar and different. It is typical for most of the discussed authors to focus on women as not only wives but also subjects to their husbands who should be virtuous in terms of chastity and modesty. Furthermore, the woman is not independent in her opinion and actions, and her main tasks are associated with bearing children and performing household duties.
These points are also reflected in the laws typical for different societies, and the practice and the laws applied in the Assyrian society can be discussed as in agreement with those ones that were presented in the list of the Laws of Manu. It is assumed by the authors of the Laws of Manu and the Middle Assyrian Laws that women are evil in their nature, and this idea is also developed by Hesiod and Ban Zhao. Only the work written by Livy discusses a woman as truly virtuous, but still, the author accentuates this idea only with references to the status of a woman as a married person. In this context, the woman’s place in society is determined by her marital status, dependence on men in the family, behavior, and reputation.
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