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What are the effects of antipsychotics, antidepressants, and anti-anxiety medications on the brain?
Antidepressants are medications used for treating depression. There are many types of antidepressants and each works in a different way. Nonetheless, all types of antidepressants increase the concentration of different neurotransmitters in the brain (Tung 7). Neurotransmitters trigger depression if their reproduction is depleted due to conditions such as emotional upset, hormonal disorders, and some mental illness among others. Antidepressant medications have various effects on the brain.
One type of antidepressant is called tricyclic antidepressants. They work on the brain by increasing the concentration of serotonin and norepinephrine. Each type of tricyclic depressants increases the various neurotransmitters in different quantities. For example, an antidepressant known as clomipramine increases the concentration of serotonin more than norepinephrine and desipramine do vice versa. The other type is called the monoamine oxidase inhibitor antidepressants that help to keep the concentration of the neurotransmitter in the brain at levels that aid in mood improvement. Some of the drugs under the second type include moclobemide and phenelzine (Tung 8).
Antipsychotic medication treats psychosis. People suffering from schizophrenia, psychotic depression, and other psychotic disorders use antipsychotic medication. There are two types of antipsychotic medication: the typical and atypical antipsychotic medication, the former are the older ones and the later newer ones. Both types of antipsychotic medication have effects on the brain. A study done on schizophrenia patients under antipsychotic medication shows that the use of antipsychotic affects brain structure. The patients on atypical antipsychotics showed an increase in the size of their left and right thalamus. On the other hand, the patients on typical antipsychotic medication showed an increase in the grey matter in the right lenticular and a decrease in the right insula, left precuneus, and paracentral lobule. Furthermore, the typical antipsychotic leads to a decrease in the grey matter in the left middle temporal gyrus (Scherk and Falkai 147).
The anti-anxiety medication slows down the brain functions and acts as tranquilizers. The medications help to reduce feelings of tension and anxiety and they bring sleep. The anti-anxiety drugs affect the brain by binding to the neurons responsible for producing chemicals that cause anxiety. The anti-anxiety medication affects the body because continued use can lead to dependence. In order to avoid dependence, the medication is prescribed for a short period. The medication should be withdrawn from the patient slowly to avoid sudden negative withdrawal symptoms such as relapse back into anxiety (Mental Health Medications 1).
There has been an increase in the various nitrite inhalations since the 1970s. Discuss the trend and history and report the dangers of using these drugs
Nitrate inhalants are very popular because of the cheap thrill they give to the users. Nitrate inhalers are chemical compounds. A Scottish physician Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton started the use of amyl nitrate for medicinal purposes. Amyl nitrate was used in the treatment of angina pectoris in order to help in dilating the coronary arteries and improve the blood flow. The chemicals also cause euphoria hence its use as a recreational drug (Merci 1).
The use of various nitrite inhalants for recreational purposes started with homosexual men for sexual enhancement. It was easy to buy the drug over the counter. The word about its sexual enhancement abilities spread everywhere and within no time, many people were using the drug. Many gay men wanted to use the nitrite aphrodisiac hence, its usage increased until the U.S Food and Drug Administration (FDA) changed the chemical to a prescription-only drug. After the ban of over-the-counter sale of amyl nitrate another variety called, butyl nitrite was introduced into the market. The new chemical was easily sold under different trades for example, “Jack-Aroma and Locker Room” (Merci 1). Butyl nitrate and a foul smell but that did not stop people from inhaling it to satisfy their curiosity. The drug was hot in the 1980s and the usage spread from gay men to clubs and the public.
More varieties such as Isobutyl, isopropyl appeared in the market after FDA banned each subsequent one. The chemicals are introduced into the market disguised as other products in order to bypass the FDA and avoid a ban. Currently, the drug in use is called cyclohexyl nitrite, which is sold guided as a head cleaner for VCRs hence bypasses the ban. The nitrite inhalants have remained popular over time because of the reputation people hold that they are sexual enhancers. Moreover, the inhalants are readily available and cheap hence affordable to many users. Users like them because they have a very quick reaction and give intense effects of short-lived euphoria. Thus, users have to keep inhaling more and more to enjoy leading to tolerance (O’Connor 1).
Nitrite drugs cause health risks to users. The continued use of drugs causes short-term challenges such as headache and feeling of pressure in the eyes. A user may also experience the feeling of nausea, faintness, and vomiting especially if they use other drugs too. In addition, the inhalation of nitrites causes a user to experience blackouts that may pose a risk especially in crowded areas such as clubs (O’Connor 1).
On the other hand, continued use of the drug can lead to health problems such as glaucoma. The condition of glaucoma is caused by the damage of the red blood cells found in the eyes because of the increment of pressure in the nerves by the nitrite chemicals. Eventually, a user loses the ability to see and becomes blind. The other danger of drug use is contracting the HIV virus. The use of nitrites impairs the immune system and makes one vulnerable to AIDs. Moreover, the use of the drug especially among gay men increases the risk of contracting HIV because of having unprotected sex. The drug leads people to casual sex because they believe it is a sexual enhancer and it poses a danger if used together with other sexual enhancement drugs because it can lead to death and a case of severe hypotension (O’Connor 1). The drug also causes Blood cell damage. Nitrite chemicals destroy the red blood cells that are responsible for carrying oxygen hence the cells cannot transport oxygen. The damage occurs especially to the users who swallow the drug.
Discuss the problems and effects of caffeine upon the brain, the body, and behavior
Caffeine is a chemical substance occurring in coffee and tea (Peters 1). It is a nervous, respiratory, and circulatory stimulant. It is also a diuretic that means increases urination. Its bitter alkaloid stimulates the nervous system and helps one to be alert. Some people report long moments of wakefulness once they use caffeine. Caffeine affects the brain by binding some receptors in the brain. The bound receptors are responsible for causing sleep hence a person remains awake due to reduced activity of the sleep-causing receptors (Peters 1). Moreover, caffeine leads to an increase in dopamine, which increases the feeling of pressure by activating the pleasure parts. The pleasure derived from caffeine consumption causes addiction.
Caffeine affects the body through the increase of adrenaline hence give the body more energy. Studies show that caffeine eliminates fatigue symptoms and increase bodily labor. For example, some swimmers who consumed caffeine prior to the exercise exhibited extended performance (Caffeine and the Effects on the Body 1). On the other hand, caffeine affects behavior. People under caffeine are alert, energetic, and more likely to be social. Other individuals who consume excess amounts of caffeine may experience anxiety (Smith 1244). However, in low doses caffeine does not have identifiable effects on the mood. Anxiety occurs in caffeine doses higher than 600 mg. In other cases, caffeine reduces fatigue but leads to nervousness. The lack of in the body causes jitteriness and restlessness.
There are a number of problems associated with the consumption of caffeine. One of the problems is causing headaches, irritability, and restlessness. It also keeps the body in an emergency state all the time and it is not healthy. The long-term use of caffeine may lead to dependence and an increase in the level to achieve the initial effects. The use of caffeine causes dehydration because it is diuretic and promotes fluid loss in the body. The loss of fluids is not useful for fitness activities especially restraining training (Caffeine and the Effects on the Body 1).
Another problem with caffeine is its effect on sleep. Caffeine has a lifeline of about six hours in the body and it keeps one alert. However, if one falls asleep cannot enjoy the benefits of deep sleep. Deep sleep is beneficial to the body because it enables the body to relax thus a person on caffeine wakes up feeling tired because the body did not rest completely during sleep (Smith 1250). Lastly, withdrawing from caffeine does not have threatening effects but mild symptoms such as headaches, irritability, and fatigue occur. Fortunately, they clear in a matter of days.
Discuss the Federal Drug Administration’s procedure to approve medications. Why is this important and needed or why is this not important or not needed?
The Federal Drug Administration (FDA) is a government agency in the U.S charged with the responsibility of approving new medication before it finds its way into the market (Seligman 1). FDA has the responsibility of ensuring that new medication is safe and effective for human consumption. The body follows a procedure during the approval of any medication. The procedure of approving drugs is very important because it has major implications. The process involves a minimum of twelve phases. The first phase occurs after the FDA allows a new drug to enter the investigation. During the initial phase, about twenty to eighty healthy volunteers are recruited to be put under the new drug for about a year to test its safety on human beings. The volunteers are given low doses of the new drug and closely monitored (Lipsky and Sharp 365).
The level of the dosage is increased eventually and if the drugs pass the initial safety process, the next phase begins. Phase 2 involves the study of the effectiveness of the new drug and few volunteers are used to minimize the risk to a large group of people. About one to three hundred volunteers suffering from the condition the new drug targets to treat are given a dose. Researchers determine the most effective way of administering the drug for example intravenous or oral. They also monitor the dosing intervals and supervise the volunteers closely. Some of the drugs fail to pass this phase because of ineffectiveness and others have very serious side effects or safety problems. The drug that passes phase two proceeds to phase three. In phase, three researchers pass involve a large number of people in the study to confirm the findings of phase two. The studies done in stage three may last for two to ten years. The studies determine the effectiveness and dosage of the drug. It is important to note that many drugs fail to pass in spite of the rigorous tests done prior to reaching the phase (Lipsky and Sharp 365).
The first three phases are called the clinical tests and after a drug passes them, a new drug application is made to the FDA. The application may be accepted or rejected. In case of a rejection, the FDA gives the applicants reasons why the drug failed the approval and what can be done to pass approval later. Some drugs get tentative approval has to correct a minor deficiency in order to get. A drug that passes the application becomes approved and it is allowed to sell in the market.
The procedure of approval of drug medication is important and needed to ensure that the new drugs in the market are safe for humans. The FDA ensures that drug companies meet the required regulations before a drug is put into the market and hence protect consumers from companies that may put profits first before safety and sell substandard or unsafe drugs to the public. Furthermore, the FDA continues to monitor drugs after they enter the market to ensure their continued safety and performance in the larger population. Thus, FDA can take appropriate action if a safety issue arises in a certain drug already in the market (Seligman 1).
From the book, pick any psychological disorder and discuss the medication treatment for this disorder, and from the book pick any psychological disorder and pick the drug that caused it, and discuss how this disorder can be a direct result of drug use
Schizophrenia is a severe psychological disorder. A person suffering from the disorder experience hallucinations and hear voices. The patient can become withdrawn especially if they believe that other people plan to harm them because they become paranoid and fearful. For some patients holding down a job is difficult and may become reliant on others. It may difficult to tell a person is suffering from schizophrenia until one talks about the things on his or her mind. People suffering from can help the treatment to help them cope with the disorder (How is Schizophrenia Treated 1).
Medication is given to help manage the symptoms of schizophrenia in patients because the exact cause of the disorder is unknown (How is Schizophrenia Treated 1). The medication given is called antipsychotic because it helps to reduce the psychotic symptoms patients show. One or two medications may be subscribed for a particular patient to help the patient get the maximum benefits of the drugs. Certain medicines are effective in treating schizophrenia especially the newer antipsychotic medications or the second-generation antipsychotics. The newer antipsychotic work faster compared to the rest of the medications (Treatment for Schizophrenia 1).
The newer antipsychotic medications such as olanzapine have some side effects for the patients. The side effects include sleepiness, increased appetite, weight gain, and dizziness among others. Moreover, older antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol are given to some patients and they are likely to have side effects such as shakiness and muscle stiffness. Studies show that both newer and older antipsychotic medications are effective. However, some schizophrenia patients fail to respond to antipsychotic medications and they are given an alternative treatment called electroconvulsive therapy. Children suffering from schizophrenia are not treated with all the medications used to treat adults.
Other medications such as mood stabilizers are used to treat schizophrenia patients with a mood disorder. The mood stabilizers may take a longer time to show any positive results than the antipsychotic medications. Some of the medications require to be monitored closely for blood levels and if taken by pregnant women can cause birth defects. Moreover, antidepressants are used together with antipsychotics for patients suffering from depression because it often accompanies schizophrenia (Treatment for Schizophrenia 1).
Other treatment methods for schizophrenia include psychosocial interventions for family members and caregivers to help the patients and avoid a relapse. The other is substance abuse treatment for the patients because many of them deal with the problem of substance abuse. The schizophrenia patients are given cognitive behavioral therapy to enable them to understand the change in their patterns and how to deal with them. The method is effective because it helps them to function in society well. Moreover, antipsychotic medications may cause weight gain, and patients are educated about weight management (How to Treat Schizophrenia 1).
Drug use can cause some psychological disorders. The long-term substance use of a drug called ecstasy leads to depression a psychological disorder. The long use of ecstasy derives the brain from the function of serotonin (Drug Abuse and Mental Illness 1). Serotonin has many functions in the brain and its reduction leads to depression a psychological disorder. The decreased levels of serotonin lead directly to symptoms associated with depression (Function of Serotonin 1). A person suffering from depression is treated through medication that increases the reproduction of serotonin to alleviate depressions. Hence, abuse of ecstasy leads directly to depression as users use it to experience euphoria and fall deeper into addiction. The continued addiction to the drug decreases serotonin levels in the brain and depression becomes severe for the users.
Works Cited
Caffeine and the Effects on the Body. Caffeine Database. 2008. Web.
Drug Abuse and Mental Illness. National Drug Intelligence Center. 2004. Web.
The function of Serotonin. All on Depression help. 2009. Web.
How is schizophrenia treated? National Institute of Mental Health. 2011. Web.
Lipsky, Martin and Lisa Sharp. “From idea to market: The drug approval process.”JABFP 14.5 (2001): 362-367.
Mental Health Medication. National Institute of Mental Health. 2011. Web.
Merci, Susan. Nitrous oxide and nitrite inhalants. Feb. 2011. Web.
O’Connor, Patrick. Volatile nitrites. 2008. Web.
Scherk, Harald and Peter Falkai. Effects of antipsychotic on brain structure. Current Opinion Psychiatry, 19(2006): 145-150.
Seligman, Paul. FDA’s role in identifying and communicating drug safety issues. FDA U.S Food and Drug Administration. 2009. Web.
Smith, Andrew. “Effects of caffeine on human behaviour.” Food and chemical Toxicology, 40 (2002): 1243-1255.
Treatment for schizophrenia. Medicine Net Inc. 2011. Web.
Tung, Anthony. How antidepressants and antipsychotic medications work. Visions Bcs mental Health and Addictions Journal, 4.2 (2007):7-8.
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