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According to the traditional approach, sensory training is conducted before or simultaneously with speech production training (Van Riper, 1939; as cited in Roth & Worthington, 2019). Examples of these teaching strategies include imitation and successive approximation.
Within a sensory-motor approach introduced by McDonald (1964), the entire speech process is perceived as motor activity (as cited in Koch, 2018). The treatment includes the description of every articulatory movement and practicing syllables, combinations of words, and sentences.
The paired stimuli approach was developed by Weston and Irwin (1971; as cited in Koch, 2018). This intervention implies word-to-sentence progression and uses paring keywords with training words.
The distinctive features approach was introduced by McReynolds and Bennett (1972) (as cited in Roth & Worthington, 2019). It is based on the idea that each speech sound has distinct acoustic properties, such as voice, placement, and nasality.
The multiphonemic approach was defined by McCabe and Bradley (1975; as cited in Roth & Worthington, 2019). It targets almost all speech sounds and aims at the comprehensive training of speech production.
Nonspeech oral motor exercises (NSOME) is a set of techniques developed by Christensen and Hanson (1981), Dworkin (1978), and Marshalla (1985) (as cited in Koch, 2018). This approach aims at strengthening articulators, such as lips and tongue, to improve articulation.
A minimal pair is an approach introduced by Blache, Parsons, and Humphreys (1981) and Weiner (1981) (as cited in Bauman-Waengler & Garcia). It is based on contrasting pairs of words, different in one phoneme.
The cycles approach, identified by Hodson and Paden (1983, 1991), focuses on particular speech patterns that should be trained within cycles lasting from 5 to 16 weeks (as cited in Roth & Worthington, 2019). The session includes auditory and production training, as well as home activities.
Metaphone is an approach based on the child’s understanding of the phonemic features of speech (Howell & Dean, 1994; as cited in Roth & Worthington, 2019). The clinician provides a child with explicit information about how language is structured and what defines effective communication.
The complexity/least knowledge approach was introduced by Elbert and Gierut (1986) and is focused on sounds, for which the least knowledge is demonstrated by the child (as cited in Koch, 2018).
The maximal opposition intervention developed by Gierut (1989) aims at the phonemic contrast between two words (as cited in Roth & Worthington, 2019). This approach is generally used in training children whose errors include omissions and distortions.
The whole language approach targets different aspects of language: reading, writing, and spelling. This intervention was introduced by Hoffman, Norris, and Monjure (1996); it emphasizes the interdependent nature of various areas of language and is based on everyday interactions (as cited in Babatsouli, 2020).
Nonlinear phonology focuses on the hierarchical relationships of phonological units. This approach introduced by Bernhardt and Stoel-Gammon (1994) targets all elements of the phonological system, including word structure and phonetic features (as cited in Bernhardt & Stemberger, 2020).
The PROMPT treatment introduced by Hayden and Square (1994) combines motor, language, and interaction aspects. It can be described as a sensory-motor technique addressing linguistic and cognitive issues (Koch, 2018).
Phonological awareness is a training approach of Gillon (2000) and Hesketh, Adams, Nightingale, and Hall (2000), aimed at enhancing children’s understanding of words’ sound structure (as cited in Easterbrooks & Dostal, 2020).
The multiple oppositions approach was developed by Williams (1992), who dealt with children with severe speech disorders (as cited in Koch, 2018). This intervention is based on contrasting word pairs, different in multiple features, such as the manner and place of articulation and voice.
The morphosyntactic intervention was introduced by Haskill, Tyler, and Tolbert (2001); it targets morphological and syntactic features of language (as cited in Horst, & von Koss Torkildsen, 2019). This approach is focused on both speech and language disorders.
Earobics and Easy Do It is a software program designed for auditory training and aimed at improving speech perception (Sattari et al., 2021).
References
Babatsouli, E. (2020). On under-reported monolingual child phonology. Multilingual Matters.
Bauman-Waengler, J., & Garcia, D. (2018). Phonological treatment of speech sound disorders in children: A practical guide. Plural Publishing.
Bernhardt, B. M., & Stemberger, J. P. (2020). Phonological development: Research in multilingual and cross-cultural contexts. In F. Li et al. (Eds.), Child bilingualism and second language learning: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 223-248). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Easterbrooks, S.R., & Dostal, H.M. (Eds.). (2020). The Oxford handbook of deaf studies in literacy. Oxford University Press.
Horst, J., & von Koss Torkildsen, J. (2019). International handbook of language acquisition. Routledge.
Koch, C. (2018). Clinical management of speech sound disorders. Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Roth, F.P., & Worthington, C.K. (2019). Treatment resource manual for speech-language pathology (6th ed.). Plural Publishing.
Sattari, K., Rahbar, N., Ahadi, M., & Haghani, H. (2021). Developing a temporal processing-based auditory training program for the senior users of hearing aids: A home PC-based program. Auditory and Vestibular Research, 30(1), 42-49. Web.
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