Nutritional Considerations for Elite Female Volleyball Players

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Abstract

Volleyball is a demanding team sport that requires players to possess strength and agility. This study portrays the significance of various macronutrients and supplements in elite female volleyball players. The performance of the player is highly dependent on nutrition, as it is helpful in both training and actual matches. Macronutrients such as vitamins, proteins, minerals, and carbohydrates enable the players to have proper weight. It also provides them with the required health during training and competition. This brings about the need to identify the nutritional requirements to promote performance. Although the nutrients required by players during matches and training differ, macronutrients help them achieve optimum performance. Micronutrients are minerals and nutrients that are precursors in facilitating various psychological processes; they include iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B. Supplements provide concentrated amounts of essential nutrients whenever there is a nutrient deficiency, including creatine, sodium bicarbonate, caffeine, and beta-alanine. The use of supplements promotes adaptation and increases the speed of recovery after training and matches. Macronutrients, micronutrients, and supplements are critical in supporting female volleyball players’ health and performance.

Nutritional Considerations for Elite Female Volleyball Players

Volleyball is a universal sport played between two teams separated by a net, each having six players. The sport is characterized by skilled high-intensity activities such as jumping, diving, blocking, spiking, and running and specific skills, including agility-footwork and hand-eye coordination (Pion et al., 2015; Karahan & Çolak, 2022). The elite-level players face physical demands during matches and in training. They require strength in their upper body to spike, block, and dig balls and enough power in their legs to help elevate them in the air (Danh et al., 2020). With these strenuous activities, elite female volleyball players require significant energy to perform at an optimum level.

Nutrition plays a vital role in maximizing the player’s performance during match-play and training and sustaining their health over the season. Moreover, gaining the right amount of nutrients and energy is essential in enhancing game performance and maintaining health (Qi, 2021). Additionally, thorough monitoring of the status of micronutrients helps prevent immune impairment and fatigue following a deficiency status. Therefore, this review will focus on the importance of elite female volleyball players having the correct diet that optimizes their performance and recovery during and after training and competition.

Introduction

Training programs for elite volleyball players depend on team participation and planned events during the year. It is impossible to create a calendar that would include all types of volleyball players, as some teams play only during the season, while others participate in competitions throughout the year (Hyatt & Kavazis, 2019). However, the preseason generally starts in the summer months (July-August), while the official matches usually begin in late summer to early fall (Hyatt & Kavazis, 2019). During the start of the season, teams may play several games per week in the non-conference competition. In mid to late fall, competitive matches take place, and conference play usually occurs during weekends. Following conference play, the season usually ends in late fall, and postseason championships may take place in early winter (Hyatt & Kavazis, 2019). Therefore, the season usually lasts from three to four months, depending on the team’s level and participation outcome.

The training program is usually designed to start in the early offseason – in spring – and continue throughout the season’s end. It is divided into several stages according to the proximity of conference play – weight training-focused in the early offseason, balanced between weight training and aerobic activities in the preseason, and aerobic training-focused (which includes games) during the season (Hyatt & Kavazis, 2019). Based on this regimen, it is apparent that female volleyball players require various nutrients to support their long training periods to avoid injury and ensure optimal performance.

Achieving the Optimum Physique: Physiological Requirements, Common Exercises, and Nutrition Needs

Volleyball is a sport that requires both physical strength and anaerobic as well as aerobic power. This means that athletes must be able to perform quick, instantaneous movements (jumps, sprints, throws) and be resilient enough to run and move with the same high level of agility throughout the match (Esteban-García et al., 2020). Based on these characteristics, the optimum physique for a female volleyball player is determined by their vertical, attack, and block jumps, which require a lower fat mass and overall lean constitution (Esteban-García et al., 2020; Pavlović et al., 2022). Key muscle groups are shoulders, core, back, and glutes, as they provide support and torque for explosive movements during the match.

Such requirements as low-fat mass and well-developed muscle strength require female players to combine strength exercises (weight lifting) and high-intensity training that raises anaerobic power and aerobic capacity. In the case of nutrition, the main issue is weight mass gain without increasing the fat level. According to DeCaro (2018), body fat percentage is directly related to performance – lower fat levels are linked to better performance in tests. The problem of not regaining nutrients during training arises if the athlete does not follow a nutrient-rich diet. This concern is especially evident in female athletes, whose performance is specifically on body and fat mass. As female volleyball players are expected to have low-fat mass and a lean physique, they often have inadequate diets that lack macro- and micronutrients. The main practical problem is the necessity to cut out fatty foods rich in vitamins and nutrients (Gastrich et al., 2020). Thus, increased attention should be devoted to developing nutritional recommendations for this group of athletes.

Methods

For the purpose of this overview, relevant articles and publications were located using several databases, including PubMed and Google Scholar. The search included combinations of the words “female,” “athlete,” “elite volleyball players,” “nutrition,” and “physique.” Articles that contained information about the nutrition requirements and problems among female volleyball players were considered for review. As a result, 61 relevant academic sources were selected to support the outlined recommendations.

Overview of the Nutritional Requirements of Training, Including Special Requirements for Energy and Micronutrients

All female volleyball players require nutritional diets with macronutrients such as protein, carbohydrates, minerals, fluids, and vitamins, as shown in Table 1 (Appendix A). They use the acquired energy to maintain their training needs and optimum performance during the competition (Carter, 2018). Their energy needs lie within 1160 to 1183 Kcal per match and 2400 to 4200 Kcal for daily training (Almeida & Soares, 2003; Valente-dos-Santos et al., 2018). As a result, meeting the appropriate nutrition requirements ensures that the players are equipped with sufficient energy during training.

Macronutrient Needs for Training

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the most significant energy source in the diet of an elite female volleyball player. They are used to fuel aerobic-based sports and take a key role in recovery and performance as a muscle substrate. Low levels of carbohydrates result in the depletion of muscle glycogen, fatigue, decreased physical output, and impaired concentration (Black et al., 2020; Williams & Rollo, 2015; Kerksick et al., 2018). Therefore, it is significant for elite players to maximize their glycogen levels following the carbohydrate importance for executing actions at high volume and frequency (Wohlgemuth et al., 2021). Athletes should take a high amount of carbohydrates, ranging between 1700 to 1845 kcal per day during preseason and postseason and the day before training, which enhances the replacement of liver and muscle glycogen (Larson-Meyer, 2003). The required carbohydrate level can be attained by raising food intake in rice, pasta, and bread.

Moreover, a high carbohydrate intake should be maintained, especially when several games are played over a short period, such as within 2-3 days. However, even with a carbohydrate intake of 7-10 g/kg per day, muscle glycogen cannot be entirely restored 48 hours after a game (Black et al., 2020). This is primarily because of the odd exercise components of volleyball, which results in the impairment of the sensitivity of the skeletal muscle insulin and glycogen synthesis. Additionally, a lengthy recovery period is required to compete and train effectively with a completely refilled skeletal muscle glycogen, even with carbohydrate consumption (Black et al., 2020; Campbell et al., 2007). This adds to the significance of recommending high carbohydrate consumption to maximize the re-synthesize of muscle glycogen after training and competition.

Maintaining high carbohydrate intake during training can enhance female volleyball players’ cognitive, physical, and technical performance. Consumption of 1-1.2 grams of carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight is vital for players engaging in over 60 minutes of playing to provide maximum energy (Gamage & De Silva, 2014). Female athletes can burn between 600-1200 kilocalories per hour of volleyball training (Carvajal et al., 2012; Gamage & De Silva, 2014). Furthermore, carbohydrate is also important in promoting recovery once the match is over. Snacks such as milkshakes, chocolate, sports bars, and yogurt with fruit must be consumed daily to maintain optimal performance till the end of the match or before intense training sessions (Gamage & De Silva, 2014). However, it can be difficult for players to attain adequate carbohydrate intake after late training. Following this scenario, 7-10 g/kg infusion during the preceding day should be given maximum attention and maintained for 1-3 days in subsequent games (Larson-Meyer, 2003.) This will help restore the used-up carbohydrate and promote faster recovery.

Protein

Protein intake is essential in promoting the recovery of muscles post-exercise. The recommended protein consumption is 80 to 120 grams daily. This protein can be attained using 1/2 a liter of milk with 1 cup of Cheerios, a turkey and cheese sandwich, two cups of lentil soup, chicken breast, and 1/2 a liter of milk (Larson-Meyer, 2003.). Moreover, the co-consumption of protein with carbohydrates has beneficial effects on the re-synthesis of glycogen and promotes muscle tissue repair following a sub-optimal carbohydrate intake. However, if synthesis rates are not elevated periodically using dietary ingestion, they may result in prolonged periods of negative protein balance. This will significantly inhibit faster muscle as well as tissue recovery.

Fluids or Rehydration

Fluids are a significant component in an athlete’s diet in enhancing body hydration. Volleyball is accompanied by intense training that results in the increased metabolic production of heat, increasing muscle temperature to over 312 kelvin (Almeida & Soares, 2003). Following this, sweat evaporation on the skin’s surface is the primary physiological means to lose this heat, which can make a player lose over 2 liters of fluids (Almeida & Soares, 2003). Due to such fluid loss, athletes can become severely dehydrated. Taking 4 to 6 cups of fluid during active matches and 2 to 3 cups before and after training ensures that a player remains well-hydrated (Black et al., 2020; Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021; Larson-Meyer, 2003.). Hydration can be monitored using osmolality, the color of urine, and perception of thirst (ADA Reports, 2000). Elite players can meet their individual hydration needs by taking diluted fruit juices, water, and sports beverages enriched with nutrients (Fatahi et al., 2021). Hydration is vital in ensuring that players avoid fatigue due to high-intensity exercises.

Micronutrient Needs for Training

Micronutrients include minerals and vitamins, and they are responsible for facilitating physiological processes. Athletes regularly perform intensive exercises, which strain most of the metabolic pathways, creating a need for micronutrient consumption (Gastrich et al., 2020). Moreover, training can lead to biochemical muscle adaptations, which stress the necessity of including micronutrients in the diet. Players need to consume nutrient-concentrated foods to reach the necessary levels of nutrients for high energy and healthy functioning (Guest et al., 2019). Therefore, special attention should be given to providing a sufficient infusion of iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B, all of which have roles in energy metabolism.

Iron

Iron is a vital micronutrient in an athlete’s diet due to its transporting of oxygen and energy. Iron also influences biological functions like cell proliferation, DNA synthesis, and breathing (Mielgo-Ayuso et al., 2018). Therefore, adequate consumption of iron is necessary for volleyball because of its heavy dependence on aerobic metabolism (Guest et al., 2021). Female volleyball players require an iron intake of 20 mg daily (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021). Inadequate iron intake can damage muscle function and inhibit work or exercise capacity, disrupting training adaptation and player performance (Nepocatych et al., 2017). Moreover, insufficient iron severely impacts aerobic training, causes muscle fatigue, compromises recovery time, and declines energetic efficiency during submaximal activity. The most common sources of iron include meats, vegetables, and cereal products (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021; Larson-Meyer, 2003.). The diet can contain rice, pasta, bread, grains, legumes, poultry, pork, beef, and leafy greens such as spinach.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D plays a vital role in musculoskeletal health, mainly by facilitating the absorption of calcium and phosphorus and improving the physical performance of professional volleyball players. In addition, vitamin D help in non-skeletal functions such as immune function, muscle growth, and inflammatory modulation, improving athletes’ performance (Alimoradi et al., 2019). Lower levels of Vitamin D increase the possibility of musculoskeletal injuries, reduced muscle strength, and stress fractures (Nikiforos et al., 2017). One of the main sources of vitamin D is sunlight. It can also be obtained through dietary sources like eggs and fish and fortified foods like milk (Almeida & Soares, 2003; Nikolaidis et al., 2016). During winter and fall, there is low to no exposure to ultraviolet radiation, which causes a decrease in the endogenous production of vitamin D, requiring supplementation.

Vitamin B

Vitamin B1, or thiamine, is responsible for the metabolism of protein and carbohydrates. It is also active in energy production, immune system activation, and maintaining a healthy nervous system (Liu, 2021). Vitamins B (B1, B2, and B3) help facilitate iron absorption, transportation, and blood cell production (Ong & Brownlee, 2017). The primary sources of thiamine include bread, cereals, pork, nuts, and beans. The required thiamine consumption dose for females is 1.1mg daily, according to Liu (2021). Given that glucose is the primary fuel of the nervous system, thiamine deficiency can result in muscular fatigue, lack of coordination, and muscular weakness (Rennolds, 2014). These consequences are especially dangerous for volleyball players, who may suffer traumas as a result.

Vitamin B2, or riboflavin, is critical in aerobic energy production from proteins and carbohydrates. Moreover, riboflavin facilitates the synthesis of Flavin Mononucleotide and Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide enzymes which help in amino acids, glucose, glycerol, and fatty acids metabolism to produce energy (Pilis et al., 2019; Smith-Ryan et al., 2020). The recommended intake of riboflavin is 1.1mg daily for females. Riboflavin can be found in dairy products, including cheese, milk, yogurt, green vegetables such as spinach, green pepper, broccoli, and whole grains (Rooney, 2020; Smith-Ryan et al., 2020). Lack of adequate intake of riboflavin can cause poor performance due to fatigue and weaknesses caused by insufficient energy.

Vitamin B3 (Niacin) works as the precursor of Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD) and Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) coenzymes which are required for energy production through glycolysis, the pentose pathway, and electron transport (Renard et al., 2021; Sugiyama et al., 2017). Additionally, NAD and NADP facilitate protein synthesis and β-oxidation of fats. Furthermore, niacin has a role in mitochondrial metabolism, affecting energy production and significantly influencing volleyball players’ nervous and muscular systems (Sugiyama et al., 2017). The recommended dietary allowance for niacin intake is 14mg daily for females. Niacin deficiency causes muscle weakness due to insufficient energy to support optimum exercise performance (Sjoberg, 2006). Vitamin B3 is primarily found in protein-rich foods like poultry meat, beef, nuts, legumes, and whole grains.

Calcium

Calcium is an essential mineral that facilitates cellular processes such as skeletal muscle contraction, protein utilization, blood clotting prevention, nerve transmission and growth, and repair and maintenance of bone tissue. These processes help influence the physical performance of female athletes. The recommended intake for female volleyball players is 1100 to 1300 mg daily (Larson-Meyer, 2003.). The primary sources of calcium include soya beans, nuts, dairy products, and leafy greens (Liu, 2021). Insufficient calcium intake leads to slow bone growth and remodeling, which can cause a loss in bone mass, increasing the possibility of bone stress fractures.

Nutritional Strategies Before, During, and After a Competition That Promotes Optimum Performance

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrate Consumption can be done before or after the beginning of a competition. During a game, players can consume sports drinks with 80 mg of CHO solutions such as sucrose or glucose, especially over time-outs and breaks, as the time available is limited to take solid carbohydrate foods (Sjoberg, 2006; Kontele & Vassilakou, 2021; Liu, 2021). Sports drinks offer the required carbohydrates to maintain players’ performance throughout the match. After a game is completed, the main focus of elite players is to refuel muscle and liver glycogen. According to Nikolaidis et al. (2012), players must take carbohydrates immediately after a match to promote maximum glycogen re-synthesis. This is a viable strategy because glycogen-synthesizing enzymes are very active at this period. As per Gamage and De Silva, (2014), a diet consisting of 200-300 g of carbohydrate intake 3-4 hours prior to the start of competition increases muscle glycogen and provides sufficient energy needed for elite female volleyball players. Athletes can consume recovery drinks or snacks in changing rooms or after a game.

Since the average time needed for a volleyball player to complete a match ranges from 28 to 149 minutes, they require an optimum supply of energy to sustain them throughout the game. Thus, a carbohydrate intake of 30-60 g for this duration can help support the player over the competition (Gamage & De Silva, 2014). For this reason, a snack before competition consumed one hour before a match helps raise glycogen stores in the liver and gives a player another source of carbohydrate over the course of the competition.

Moreover, the amount of carbohydrates consumed after a game is essential in determining the level of glycogen re-synthesis. Maximum re-consumption is reached when one takes from 1 to 1.2 g/kg of carbohydrates every hour (Gamage & De Silva, 2014; Smith-Ryan et al., 2020; Sugiyama et al., 2017). This is the equivalent of 96 grams per hour of carbohydrate post-match completion. In addition, a strategy of frequent consumption of carbohydrates induces considerable re-synthesis of glycogen (Copic et al., 2014; Sugiyama et al., 2017). This can be effectively done in intervals of 30 minutes compared to carbohydrate ingestion every two hours. Furthermore, taking 0.2 to 0.5 g/kg of protein with a carbohydrate consumption of 1.2 kilograms per day promotes a higher re-synthesis of glycogen compared to the ingestion of carbohydrates alone (Melin et al., 2019; Valliant et al., 2012). Therefore, ingesting high carbohydrate amounts immediately after a match and at frequent intervals can adequately replenish glycogen levels.

Protein

Protein synthesis and muscle protein breakdown are both increased by exercise. As a result, the impacts of intense actions during a game lead to impaired muscle function, which has to be restored. Thus, the post-game nutrition strategy enhances protein synthesis and reduces muscle breakdown, thereby repairing damaged muscle fibers and supporting molecular adaptation (Valliant et al., 2012). Taking 40 grams of protein half an hour after a game increases protein synthesis compared to a 15-25 g dose, regardless of the body mass of an elite volleyball player (Valliant et al., 2012; Gamage & De Silva, 2014). Therefore, increasing one’s protein intake ensures faster recovery by reducing muscle breakdown.

Moreover, protein needs should be acquired via high-quality protein snacks and meals in the player’s diet. Optimum protein synthesis can be achieved by including protein sources in the meals of elite players with the required amount that can effectively counter their physical program demands (Anderson, 2010). For instance, whey is an excellent source of protein compared to casein or soy because of its rapid absorption kinetics and digestive properties. Additionally, whey protein contains a high percentage of leucine, the primary muscle protein augmentation trigger. Other food products such as beef, fish, and chicken also have high proportions of protein (Amatori et al., 2020). Furthermore, maximizing protein synthesis days after a match ensures effective support adaptation and recovery, thereby increasing immune function.

Fluid or Rehydration

Players must be adequately hydrated before the game as they might not get a chance to drink during a match. Athletes can use time-outs and break to take drinks for hydration. Hydration before a match can be achieved by consuming 5 to 7 ml per kg of fluids 4 hours before the start of the game (Anderson, 2010). However, if the person does not produce or has concentrated or dark urine will have to drink 3 to 5 ml per kg of fluid 2 hours before the start of the match (Barrack et al., 2013). Moreover, the consumption of isotonic fluids minutes before the start of a game with an osmolality of 270 mOsm/L can enhance fluid body retention and reduce player dehydration (Bentley et al., 2020; Guest et al., 2021). Sufficient fluid intake guarantees hydration, while specifically-designed drinks decrease the risk of rapid dehydration.

In addition, rehydration after a match is essential to ensure that replenished body liquids and electrolytes are refilled. According to Gamage & De Silva (2014), female volleyball players must consume approximately 1.5 liters of fluids per 1 kg of body mass lost over the game. A large amount of hypertonic fluid intake is recommended if an individual is severely dehydrated and balances the urine output resulting from a large volume intake (Gamage & De Silva, 2014). After the game, increased fluid intake is recommended as players lose a lot of water during each match.

Supplements Promoting Optimum Performance in Elite Female Volleyball Players

Supplements provide an adequate or concentrated amount of essential nutrients such as minerals and vitamins to female volleyball players in case of nutrient deficiency. Decreased performance in elite players happens towards the end of a match or training exercise (Campbell et al., 2007). This portrays supplementation’s significance in maximizing performances, improving training adaptations, and speeding recovery. The supplements used in this sport include creatine, sodium bicarbonate, caffeine, and beta-alanine, as listed in Table 2 (Appendix B).

Creatine

Creatine is a nutritional supplement from the amino acids (methionine, glycine, and arginine), 95% of which is stored in the skeletal muscle. The supplement is linked with a phosphate molecule – phosphocreatine. The required amount of creatine supplementation includes a dosage of 20g to 30g per day, taken 3 to 4 times daily in 6-7 days a week (Amatori et al., 2020; Yıldız & Engin, 2019). Creatine supplementation is mostly used by power athletes for the purpose of increasing strength and anaerobic capacity. These are critical aspects of volleyball players as they help improve their vertical jump, enhance their blocking power, and their attacking performance (Sieroń et al., 2018).

Creatine supplementation enhances player performance, especially in physical tests related to anaerobic respiration, specifically anaerobic power. The physical tests of short-duration activities such as jumping, turning, blocking, digging, and spiking all require maximum energy (Amatori et al., 2020; Gabel, 2006). The breakdown of muscle glycogen by glycogenolysis during exercise in female volleyball players contributes to ATP production of about 50% containing 48% phosphocreatine, and muscle ATP stock of 2%, which provides the required energy (Lee-Pineda et al., 2021). Moreover, the supplementation of creatine works on the skeletal muscle cells’ fluid level, which promotes the re-synthesis of ATP and successive improvements in the players’ performance.

Caffeine

Caffeine is used by athletes due to its strong stimulant effects and easy availability of energy drinks, thermogenic supplements, and pills. Since caffeine can be easily transported through the blood-brain barrier, it can serve as an adenosine antagonist, initiating tremendous excitement, attention, and coordination, all of which promote performance in female volleyball players (Gomez-Bruton et al., 2021; Thein-Nissenbaum & Hammer, 2017). Acute caffeine consumption enhances athletes’ endurance performance, especially in repeat sprints and jumps, and their total running distance (Malá et al., 2010). Moreover, caffeine has an ergogenic effect, sparing muscle glycogen, decreasing pain perception, increasing force production, and stimulating the central nervous system (Nazem & Ackerman, 2012). The recommended amount of caffeine supplementation is over 3 mg per kilogram of body weight, approximately one hour before the start of the game (Thein-Nissenbaum & Hammer, 2017). This amount of supplementation helps improve the jump performance of elite female volleyball players and reduces fatigue.

Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

Sodium carbonate supplementation is essential in prolonging a high amount of lactate in the skeletal muscle during strenuous volleyball games. Increased blood lactose concentration results from the glycolytic pathway used to sustain exercise intensity. It is a protecting agent that reduces a drop in muscle PH, decreasing acidity and enhancing player performance (Kostopoulos, 2018). The recommended quantity of NaHCO3 supplementation in elite female volleyball players is 0.1-0.4g/kg of body weight taken between 30 minutes and 3 hours before the start of the match (Anderson, 2010). In addition, sodium bicarbonate can be combined with other supplements, such as caffeine and creatine to improve performance. According to Anderson (2010), a combination of creatine and NaHCO3 results in increased strength, high-intensity performance, and coordination among athletes. Moreover, sodium bicarbonate increases blood bicarbonate concentration, reducing acidity and delaying fatigue development during a match or training.

Beta-Alanine (β-Alanine)

β-alanine combines with amino acid L-histidine to form a carnosine muscle that accepts protons during the initiated PH increase. Beta-Alanine supplementation increases intramuscular carnosine content, which increases the buffering capacity since the muscle cannot produce carnosine precursors (Gabel, 2006; Portal et al., 2011). This helps reduce fatigue and facilitate faster recovery, which leads to enhanced performance. The recommended quantity of β-alanine supplementation for elite volleyball players is 4g to 6 g every day for 2 weeks to one month and is proportioned to be taken four times daily (Trexler et al., 2015; Gabel, 2006; Portal et al., 2011). Additionally, β-alanine supplementation helps increase the speed and attacking performance and the endurance or resistance capacity of professional athletes because of the effective vasodilation mechanism (Papadopoulou et al., 2020). As a result, β-Alanine is essential in promoting performance in female volleyball players.

Conclusion

It is vital for elite female volleyball players to have a well-designed diet that optimizes their performance and recovery during and after training and competition. Female players require diets full of carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and vitamins to support weight, anaerobic and aerobic training, and maintain muscle growth without fat gain. These nutrients provide the necessary energy to optimize their performance and speed their recovery. Carbohydrate is the primary energy source and helps reduce fatigue and enhance the recovery of strained skeletal muscle after exercise. Additionally, protein is essential in promoting muscle and tissue recovery after training and can be obtained from milk or meats. Fluids help hydrate athletes to reduce the possibility of fatigue during strenuous activities such as training.

Professional female volleyball players also need micronutrients such as iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B (thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin) to help facilitate physiological processes. Insufficient iron severely impacts aerobic training, causes muscle fatigue, compromises recovery time, and declines energetic efficiency during submaximal activity. Vitamin D supports non-skeletal functions such as immune function, skeletal muscle growth, and inflammatory modulation, improving athletes’ performance. Vitamin B significantly improves iron absorption, and blood cell production and helps reduce fatigue while increasing coordination and muscle strength. Finally, dietary supplements provide an adequate amount of essential nutrients such as minerals and vitamins to female volleyball players in case of nutrient deficiency. Professional volleyball players’ supplements include creatine, sodium bicarbonate, caffeine, and beta-alanine. They aid in maximizing performance, reducing fatigue, improving training adaptations, and speeding up the recovery process.

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Appendix A

Table 1.Recommendation for Nutritional Requirements to Enhance Female Player Performance

Nutrient Requirements References
Carbohydrates 1700 to 1865 kcal per day or
intake of 7-10 g/kg per day		 (Larson-Meyer, 2003)
Protein 80 to 120 grams every day (Larson-Meyer, 2003.)
Fluids or hydration 2-3 cups of liquid before and after training and 4 to 6 cups while playing (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021; Larson-Meyer, 2003.)
Iron 20 mg per day (Holtzman & Ackerman, 2021; Larson-Meyer, 2003.)
Thiamine (Vitamin B1) 1.1mg per day (Liu, 2021)
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) 1.1mg per day (Liu, 2021)
Niacin (Vitamin B3) 14mg per day (Liu, 2021)
Calcium 1100 to 1300 mg of calcium daily (Larson-Meyer, 2003; Liu, 2021)

Appendix B

Table 2. Recommendation for Dietary Supplements to Enhance Female Player Performance

Elements Guidelines or recommended dosage References
Creatine 3g to 5g per day or 0.075g per kg of body mass daily
20-30 g/day overcompensation to quickly saturate phosphocreatine stocks if needed		 (Statuta, 2020; Yıldız & Engin, 2019; Amatori et al., 2020)
Caffeine 3mg-6mg per kg some hours prior the start of a competition (Thein-Nissenbaum & Hammer, 2017)
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) 0.1-0.4g per kg of body weight
30 minutes to 3 hours before the match		 (Anderson, 2010)
Beta-Alanine (β-Alanine) 4 g to 6 g per day for 2-4 weeks, divided into four times daily (Trexler et al., 2015; Portal et al., 2011; Gabel, 2006)
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