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Indian Culture
Indian culture is an example of tradition and conservatism. It has not changed much over the centuries. People still share the same values as they did in the past. Although modern India is a mixture of cults and beliefs, the ancient religion of Hinduism is still strong among the people.
Ramayana Epic as an Example of Indian Culture
The culture and values of Indian people are best described through their literature. The ancient book of Ramayana (Buck, 2000) originally written in Sanskrit has answers to the attitudes of Indians to almost every moral issue existing in today’s society. Ramayana is a story of the young prince Rama, who is sent away from his home for fourteen years. His beautiful wife Sita is kidnapped by Ravana, the king of Lanka. This hero is an example of what Indians believe to be a perfect leader. He possesses not only the excellent managerial qualities but also the personality traits which characterize him as a kind man.
Governance
The idea of a good leader mentioned above in Ramayana is best pictured by the advice which Rama gives to his brother that having one good minister is better than having many bad ones. Indians believe that a manager’s idea should rather be opposed by smart proposals, rather than supported in order to please the manager. Since the king cannot pay close attention to every issue, he requires a group of people to do this for him. Thus, these people “do not have specific tasks to carry out, but the king is always expected to consult them before initiating any task” (Olivelle, 2013, p. 40). Moreover, the essential idea is that this circle of councilors must be small in order to prevent the possible collision of ideas.
Succession Planning
Indian people highly value their traditions. They want to be sure that the new person in charge will follow these traditions and ensure the surpassing to the next generation. There are a lot of challenges facing a leader in this sphere, because “he faces the challenge of inspiring communities different from his own” (Verma, 2013, p. 182). The current leader’s opinion on who is going to be the next governor is highly valued. Prince Rama was loved and respected by his people, he was the oldest among his brothers, and confident about his actions. The community would only support the king’s decision if he chose Rama as his successor since he would be the keeper of traditions, yet the man who would be able to find a compromise with people of other beliefs.
Loyalty
Ramayana gives a proof that loyalty is earned by building strong relationships with partners. Rama was kind and open-minded. He made friends with all sorts of communities and never paid attention to a social status. It is important to remember that Indian society is still divided by the caste system. This inequality is based on discrimination which has its roots in the ancient history of the country. However, the majority of the population is against this system. That is why Rama’s character receives so much admiration. Paula Richman (2008) talks in the preface to her book about “the liberatory potential present in the Ramayana tradition” (p. xv). Prince Rama valued the equality, and this made people loyal to him.
Motivation
The Ramayana epic is an evidence of the Indian idea that motivation is valued much more that resources possessed by a person. Rama had started a war with Lanka without having any military benefits, on which he could rely as a prince. However, he succeeded because he believed in his victory and was highly motivated. Rama’s main thing in life was his wife, and “hapless Sita is the motivation behind the glory that is ultimately Ram’s” as Pestel, Palazzolo, and Burnett (2016) describe her (p. 219). Indians think that no matter how low they are on money or other resources, there is always a chance to win if they really want to. This idea is tied to the certain worldview, where the universe helps those who are courageous and strong-willed.
Family
Family ties are important everywhere in the world. It is particularly the case in Asia, where the community stands over individualism. India is not an exception, with a larger part of all individual decision made with a regard to family influence. According to Rao (2016), “maintaining strong bonds with family members as well as relatives” (p. 186) is one of the core values of the Indian culture.
Ramayana provides several examples of these values. Firstly, the war waged by Rama had its purpose in returning his wife, Sita. Secondly, Rama’s younger brother Lakshman decided to join him, when Rama was sent away for fourteen years. Lakshman could easily stay in the palace and enjoy all the benefits of living a life of a prince. However, he decided that he would not live happily without his brother, and easily traded all the comfort for the life in a forest.
Fair Judgement
One of the Ramayana’s main characters is Hanuman, a Hindu god who acts as Rama’s warrior. He has mighty powers of various kinds, like transformation and force. This god receives a lot of admiration in India. He is worshiped by “wrestlers and other athletes, by students seeking success in exams, by women hoping to conceive children, and by people suffering from mental and physical illnesses” (Lutgendorf, 2007, p. 11).
There is an episode in Ramayana where Hanuman transforms into a monkey and takes over the evil Lankini, who did not expect this from such a small creature. This story teaches that nobody should be judged by appearance, for everyone may have some hidden talents. Besides, this episode reveals another Indian value which lies in showing respect to every living creature. Indians believe that any bird or animal may, in reality, be an impersonation of a god.
Peace and Diplomacy
Continuing the theme of the Indian religion, its philosophy proclaims harmony between people and the universe. According to Roy (2016), Mahatma Gandhi is the one responsible for promoting an idea that “Hinduism is considered a religion of peace” (p. 47).
Indians would rather agree with an opponent than engage in an open confrontation. Although Ramayana’s pages have mainly the descriptions of battles, they are considered to be a fight for defending the people of Rama from the other society with different values. Besides, at first, Rama sent an ambassador to Ravana to see if the conflict regarding his wife may be solved by diplomacy. Only after the attempt had failed, the prince started a war. Moreover, Ramayana’s idea of war implies the settlement of dharma as a greater good, which is considered to be a required value.
Gender Roles
India stays a considerably conservative country regarding the social politics. Chowdhury and Patnaik (2013) note that although Indian families have already reached some progress in tackling the existing issues, the country “does not have any family policy per se” (p. 58). Women in the society are not equal to men. They hardly ever occupy positions in the management sector and earn much less money on the overall.
Their primary duties consist of housework and family care. These values can be traced in Ramayana as well. It is not hard to notice that most of the main characters are men. Sita is the only female character who has a lot of place in the story. However, even she does not make any decisive actions apart from supporting her husband.
Dharma
The concept of dharma mentioned above I one of the most important elements of the Indian philosophy. The term does not have a distinct translation into English and is generally described as the right way of living. According to Jain (2010), Indians use dharma in their day-to-day lives “to describe different virtues, duties, and ethics” (p. 105). Dharma is a key idea of the Ramayana with prince Rama as a bearer of these values. Apart from being a warrior, Rama loves nature, protects his family, obeys his parents and engages in various spiritual practices. His character is an example of what Indian people think to be an ideal person regarding moral values.
Conclusion
Ramayana is a great example of literature, which covers all of the cultural aspects of a nation. According to this ancient poem, India is a country of people, who find their duty in keeping harmony with communities, nature, and oneself. The conservative approach should be kept when interfering with this nation.
Greek Culture
Nowadays, Greece is viewed as a part of the Western Europe. However, the ancient Greece had different values, which stay unique up to this day. Various literature examples of the old times provide insight into the ancient Greek culture, which has been saved merely in museums and tourist attractions.
Iliad and the Ancient Greek Values
The Iliad epic is an excellent example of the ancient Greek culture. The Merrill’s translation (2007) contains twenty-four books, which are all a part of one poem that is generally considered to be written by Homer in the ancient times. The main plot in the Iliad is built around the war between the Achaeans and the Trojans. The poem covers, in fact, a very short period of time no more than several days during the siege of Troy. However, the author also describes the reasons for this war, as well as provides the insight on the culture and beliefs which prevailed at that time. The Iliad has certain mythology elements, but the depicted war is actually a historical fact. Below several values of ancient Greeks are described, as seen from this literature work.
War
Wars in the past used to be a regular part of life. Humanity was developing, and the most progressive societies searched the ways to expand their territory. In the ancient times, Greece was divided into several states. The rulers of these states often attacked their neighbors and took away their goods. Ordinary people had a routine life, which did not last long due to the existing level of humanity development. A battlefield was at that time, probably, the only place where a man could show himself and be remembered over the next generations. For example, when Coker (2014) talks in his book about Achilles, one of the main characters of the Iliad, he says that he “loves the glory and the fighting and the status he achieves” (p. 27). A war in ancient Greece was considered to be natural and full of opportunities.
Reputation
The matters of reputation were crucial in Greece. If a serious dispute took place, it would most likely be resolved in a battle, not in court. It was especially true with men who were kings or war chiefs. The Iliad has a note on the reasons for the war between the Achaeans and the Trojans. The abduction of Helen, the wife of Menelaus, by Paris was a serious insult undermining the importance of marriage. Besides, Menelaus was a king of Sparta, thus he was able to regain his reputation with the help of his armed forces. As Allan (2012) mentions in his book, reputation and honor are one of the most important concepts for the Iliad’s understanding (p. 37). Greeks thought that being an honored human is one of the most important achievements in life.
Glory
No battle stands aside from the concept of glory. The Greeks considered that even the defeated army could have its heroes, for it depended on the way they fought individually, not on the overall result of the conflict. That is why even though the Iliad has two enemy sides, the reader cannot identify, which one of them is better since each army has its heroes. According to Spencer (1995), Achilles “chooses not to have a nice, long, quiet life but to go for eternal fame and glory (kleos) via a heroic death in battle” (p. 135). Even though the king he fights for does not appear to be an honorable man, Achilles himself is an example of a person valued by Greeks.
Friendship
Returning to the storyline of Achilles, one may find friendship as this character’s fundamental value. When his friend Patroclus dies in battle, Achilles realizes that this is the end of his life as well. Jusdanis (2014) argues that “the failure of friendship leads to an examination of our desire for this union itself” (p. 37). The Greeks considered friendship among men to be even more important that the family ties. While women stayed at home and raised children, men spent most of their lives with their male colleagues, making this interaction more valued as compared to marriage. Besides, there existed a vast inequality between the two genders, so women were not considered to be good for serious friendship.
Love
Of course, the concept of love is sure to be among the values of every nation. Ancient Greeks were not an exception. The Iliad provides an extensive evidence of the love affairs of various heroes. Firstly, of course, it is the case of Helen, who was abducted by Paris because of her beauty. Then, the brotherly love of several men can be seen as well. Finally, Greeks believed that humans are able to build relationships with the gods as well. Lyons (1997) talks about this matter in her book, providing various examples of the ancient Greek gods falling in love with mortal people for their appearance and personality traits. Aphrodite, the goddess of love, plays one of the most important roles in the ancient Greek mythology.
Mythology
Continuing the theme of Gods, it must be said that they played a very distinct role in the lives of the ancient Greeks. Just like many other ancient countries, Greece had a polytheistic religion. The pantheon was represented by gods who impersonated various forces of nature and human professions. All of the gods resembled humans, and this is interesting from the point of view that it is common for other nations as well. Slater (1992) asks a question in the preface to his book of why they should “appear in the costume of fornicating and incestuous anthropomorphic beings rather than something else” (p. xii). The peculiar thing about the Greek gods is that they directly interfere with human actions, as well as possess the similar personality traits typical of mortal people.
Fate
The worldview of the ancient Greeks was quite fatalistic. They believed that no matter what actions people would take, they are still subject to the events predicted beforehand. Moreover, even the gods cannot use their forces to omit their destiny. Three Fates are the only ones who predict the future, although they just retell it and cannot shape it.
Nevertheless, “human autonomy is never completely stripped of meaning, even when the result of any one human decision is predetermined” (Kitts, 2013, p. 228). The idea of fate is very distinct in the Iliad, dominating all the outcomes. Thus, Achilles knows that he will die if he engages in the battle, but he still decides to do this in order to gain the eternal glory.
Death
Like many other religions, the Greek mythology had a concept of the underworld, where a soul travels to after a body’s death. However, the Iliad has an evidence of people of those times providing “surprising terminological plurality” (Bremmer, 2016, p. 228) for the term of the soul. Ancient Greeks partly viewed a released soul almost as a complete human being that kept all the memories and personality traits. Hades used to be the god of the underworld. Unlike the modern conceptions of death, Greeks did not view Hades as an evil character, but rather a neutral side. This idea has much to do with the fact that an ancient Greek hero always had to die to obtain glory.
Modern Greece
A note must be made regarding the abovementioned elements of the Greek culture. Greece was conquered by the Arabic armies, and the modern country lacks territories which are described in the Iliad. Moreover, Greece became an Orthodox Christian state and forgot the past mythology. Roudometof and Makrides (2016) analyze in their book how the Greek Orthodox Church has influenced Europe. Greece has become a distinct part of the Western civilization and accepted the traditions of the European world. Thus, it is important to distinguish the modern and the ancient culture, which differ in values, beliefs, and even the language.
Conclusion
Although the ancient Greek culture has lost its power in the modern world, it has influenced the progress of the whole European continent. Nowadays, current wars engaging most of the population are rare, thus the cult of the battle glory is not in use anymore. However, Greek literature like Iliad has inspired the development of culture and democracy throughout the world.
References
Allan, W. (2012). Homer: The Iliad. London, UK: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
Bremmer, J. N. (2016). Body and soul between death and funeral in archaic Greece. In P. Berger & J. Kroesen (Eds.), Ultimate ambiguities: Investigating death and liminality (pp. 227-252). New York, NY: Berghahn Books.
Buck, W. (Ed.). (2000). Ramayana. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.
Chowdhury, A., & Patnaik, M. M. (2013). Understanding Indian family life: The gender perspectives. EXCEL International Journal of Multidisciplinary Management Studies, 3(7), 58-67.
Coker, W. (2016). Men at war: What fiction tells us about conflict, from the Iliad to Catch-22. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
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Jusdanis, G. (2014). Tremendous thing: Friendship from the Iliad to the Internet. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Kitts, M. (2013). What’s religious about the Iliad? Religion Compass, 7(7), 225-233. doi: 10.1111/rec3.12050
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Lyons, D. (1997). Gender and immortality: Heroines in ancient Greek myths and cult. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Olivelle, P. (2013). King, governance, and law in ancient India: Kautilya’s Arthasastra. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Pestell, B., Palazzolo, P., & Burnett, L. (2016). Translating myths. New York, NY: Routledge.
Rao, G. P. (2016). Remarking ourselves, enterprise and society: An Indian approach to human values in management. New York, NY: Routledge.
Richman, P. (2008). Ramayana stories in modern South India: An anthology. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Roudometof, V., & Makrides, V. N. (2016). Orthodox Christianity in 21st century Greece: The role of religion in culture, ethnicity and politics. New York, NY: Routledge.
Roy, K. (2016). Concept of peace in Hinduism: A historical analysis. In T. Shogimen & V. A. Spencer (Eds.), Visions of peace: Asia and the West (47-66). New York, NY: Routledge.
Slater, P. B. (1992). The glory of Hera: Greek mythology and the Greek family. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Spencer, N. (1995). Time, tradition and society in Greek archaeology: Bridging the “Great Divide”. New York, NY: Routledge.
Verma, H. (2013). Leadership and dharma: The Indian epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata and their significance for the leadership today. In J. Gosling & P. Villiers (Eds.), Fictional leaders (pp. 182-201). London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
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