Workplace Learning: Individual and Agency Roles

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Table of Contents

Psychology of Adult Learning
Workplace as a Learning Environment
The Role of Individual Biography in Workplace Learning
Influence of Agencies on Workplace Learning
Conclusion
Bibliography
Footnotes

Learning is an indispensable constituent of human life. As the role of an individual in society changes, new knowledge and skills are required in order to satisfy the expectations of others and responsibilities implied by new conditions. Constant personal development necessary for achieving this goal is impossible without learning. Moreover, it is of significant importance in workplace. As the world tends to grow more globalised and innovations and the newest technologies are actively deployed for benefitting workflow and boosting performance, learning has become as inalienable part of work relations.

Nowadays, this concept is referred to as workplace learning and it has become a common practice in both business and social organisations. However, there is a challenge of understanding the specificities of this process, as there are numerous factors, which have a robust impact on both implementation of workplace learning initiatives and fruitfulness of their outcomes. For this reason, it is imperative to pay specific attention to obtaining an in-depth understanding of this phenomenon and all related concepts.

Therefore, this paper will focus on workplace learning. Emphasis will be put on various approaches to determining this phenomenon as well as identifying its dimensions and describing different aspects of this concept. Moreover, the role of individuals and agencies in workplace learning will be investigated, as it is assumed that learning is not only individual but also participatory process. Finally, this paper is an attempt to speculate on the significance of agencies and individuals in achieving success of learning programmes and find out what is the influence of implementing such initiatives in organisations regardless of sectors of their operations. The general approach for assessing the issue under consideration is the study of specificities of adult learning and psychological aspects of work-related learning processes.

Psychology of Adult Learning

Specificities of adult learning are the focus of different theories. Reviewing them is of significant importance in order to understand the grounds of workplace learning and factors affecting it. For instance, according to Neo-Marxist theory, constant deskilling, i.e. getting used to carrying out particular job duties and finding out that they become easier than before, is a common development at a workplace. However, as it takes less time and effort to cope with the assigned tasks, senior executives tend to intensify work process, e.g. make errands more complicating or demanding becoming more competent to address them. As a result, new skills and knowledge are required to meet new task specifications and quality expectations. From this perspective, workplace learning is a natural outcome of organisational development, usually characterised by intensification of working process.

In accordance with Palaeo-Marxist theory, workplace learning is a result of changes in the very nature of work itself. It is associated with the introduction of innovations, implementation of new regulations of work relations or alterations of quality requirements. Regardless of the underlying reason, changing environment leads to the recognition of the significance of new skills and knowledge for coping with job duties. Another theory used for describing the grounds of adult learning is that developed by traditional sociologists.

They believe that workplace learning is connected to the necessity of becoming aware of cultural and social norms, which are acceptable among colleagues instead of changes in the nature of work. From this perspective, it is a social skill, which is valuable for avoiding conflicts and enhancing interpersonal communication, thus benefitting an organisation due to more advantageous atmosphere in the workplace. At the same time, getting to know norms appropriate for colleagues is helpful for choosing efficient supervision and motivation techniques, which is as well beneficial for organisational outcomes¹.

Furthermore, peculiarities of adult learning can be viewed through the light of three metaphors – acquisition, participation, and knowledge creation. To begin with, these metaphors are applied to identifying different perceptions of learning process and are helpful for obtaining an in-depth understanding of its psychological aspects. That said, under the first metaphor, learning is the acquisition of appropriate work-related standards and requirements.

For instance, it can be seen in sharing experience with newly employed colleagues so that they are aware of the specificities of working process and quality expectations. At the same time, it is paramount to keep in mind that these standards and requirements are both internal and external, i.e. not only organisation needs should be addressed but also those of a sector and industry of operation. In general, from this perspective, the particularity of adults learning is the ability to acquire skills and knowledge necessary for coping with job duties and finding ways to become more competent over time.

Another metaphor is referred to as participation metaphor. According to this concept, learning refers to becoming involved in socio-cultural practices and traditions. From this perspective, those working within one environment are not necessarily influenced by developments in the external surrounding of their organisation. Instead, they create a unique atmosphere in the workplace, which incorporates norms and values of different cultures such as appropriate behaviours or restrictions.

It means that when a newly employed individual joins a team, a primary focus is made on becoming familiar with workplace practices instead of acquiring knowledge related to internal and external quality standards and expectations as well as making them aware of an individual’s acceptable framework of behaviour. Still, it should be highlighted that when applying participation metaphor to studying the phenomenon of workplace learning, it is essential to remember that it is usually a part of an embedded practice. So, in this case, the emphasis is put on the scope of learning practices and reasonableness of this process in the opinion of team members.

When viewing learning as participation, it is paramount to recognise that there are two types of workplaces as learning environments – expansive and restrictive. The first type of surroundings is supportive, i.e. any interactions between team members are encouraged in case if they benefit learning outcomes and improve performance. Employees are perceived as people with enough freedom to criticise management activities if they are not advantageous for developing workforce. Finally, there is always time devoted to obtaining feedback and sharing related experiences so that both newcomers and those lacking necessary skills and competence have an opportunity to fill existing gaps and improve their performance. This time is usually a part of working hours, i.e. an inseparable constituent of working process. That said, managers are devoted to supporting employees and facilitating workplace learning.

On the other hand, in case of restrictive workplace environments, people are seen as vehicles for achieving organisation’s set objectives and deadlines are valued more than personal development of team members. It means that any interactions related to learning are limited if they take place in working hours. At the same time, managers rarely support employees in their educational aspirations and do not allocate additional resources for fostering their self-development if organisation’s objectives are met and quality expectations are satisfied². These environments are narrow, as no attention is paid to crafting opportunities for the further improvement of productivity or making employees more competent.

Finally, adult learning can be viewed in light of knowledge creation metaphor. According to this approach, working in a team is connected to producing absolutely new experience, which is a combination of both job-related skills and knowledge and appropriate cultural norms and values, which are synonymous with the specificities of acceptable workplace practices. This metaphor can be viewed as a partial combination of the first two approaches mentioned above. However, even though the significance of collaboration and acquiring work-related knowledge are highlighted, the focus is made on modelling an exceptional environment with its own rules and regulations, as the creation of new knowledge does not occur independently or without the involvement of all team members³.

Workplace as a Learning Environment

Workplace is a natural environment for learning without regard to the sphere or industry of organisation’s operation. Initially, it was viewed as a context for learning in practical work-related activities and those requesting communication such as trading, politics, and education. However, there are several significant reasons for assuming that it as a perfect learning environment. First and foremost, there is a strong tendency towards ageing of population. It means that the average age of employees is higher than several decades ago. Moreover, modern work is closely related to the excessive use of the newest technologies and continuous innovation. Due to fast technological developments and collision of generations in carrying out work-related duties, workplace learning has become one of the most effective strategies for guaranteeing a relatively identical level of competence and employee performance, as it serves as a platform for intra-generational communication.

To begin with, it is essential to note that learning at work is very different from formal education gained at educational institutions or informal one gained at home. That said, workplace learning is related to practice and everyday activities and skills necessary for carrying out job duties at an appropriate level. These activities are directly connected to production or any other on-the-job functions. It means that workplace learning is a process of obtaining new knowledge by observing colleagues, working with job-related instruments or software, and sharing experiences with other team members. However, at the same time, it could be enhanced by attending workshop sessions arranged or financed by senior executives of an organisation of even the state.

Viewing workplace as a learning environment requires recognising the existence of several dimensions of this phenomenon. The first one is tasks dimension. It is directly connected to job duties and appropriate functioning of an individual in an organisational system as well as creating an advantageous atmosphere in the workplace. From this perspective, workplace is viewed as a learning environment because it is a natural surrounding for obtaining skills and knowledge, which are required for benefitting a system of operation due to an opportunity to communicate with other team members and share valuable information with each other. It should be noted that workplace is more efficient compared to official education because of learning in a common environment and communicating with familiar people⁴.

Another specific dimension of workplace is practice and performance, which derives from the first one. In this case, the emphasis is made of acceptable standards of employee performance and particular level of productivity. It is assumed that workplace learning is the best option for improving work-related outcomes in case of facing challenges of productivity drops or the introduction of new requirements to coping with job duties. Moreover, it is highlighted that it is more beneficial to train and teach currently employed people to help them meet new occupational or social expectations in the existing atmosphere and become more competent than invest in hiring new people and integrating them into a workplace environment⁵.

Finally, there is micropolitics dimension, which is as well viewed as a constituent of workplace learning. This one is referred to the position of an organisation and senior executives and the way they perceive the process of learning. It is closely connected to the recognition of the value of investing in continuous development of employees and empowering them to benefit their organisation by reaching better outcomes and higher level of performance⁶. Micropolitical dimension begins with a thorough analysis of a workplace atmosphere and identification of crucial gaps in skills and knowledge, which have a negative impact on productivity and the ability to achieve strategic objectives. From this perspective, it is believed that workplace is a natural learning environment because senior executives have opportunities and resources to train employees and help them to reach a desirable level of competence. At the same time, they have power to manage and supervise learners, thus guaranteeing success of any work-related initiative.

It is imperative to note that workplace is an appropriate environment for learning because it provides numerous opportunities. First and foremost, it is a perfect option for combining both formal and informal education such as conducting trainings or designing an unofficial platform for sharing experience between younger and elder employees. Moreover, it can be easily adapted in order to meet specific needs of both individuals and whole teams, as learning initiatives can be conducted at both individual and team-based levels.

More than that, in case of enhancing workplace learning, the necessity of investing in integrating new employees into teams is eliminated, as launching learning platforms is a productive idea for sharing knowledge and helping to develop skills, which are required for reaching acceptable level of performance and growing more competent. Finally, workplace is the best surrounding for learning because employees feel free to seek answers to any questions due to studying in a common environment without being anxious or afraid of excessive criticism and misunderstandings, which are common when obtaining new knowledge with strangers.

At the same time, there are some significant barriers, which should not be ignored when viewing workplace as a learning environment. To begin with, in order to implement an efficient system of workplace learning, it is critical to allocate adequate resources and develop appropriate organisational structure, which would both motivate employees to obtain new knowledge and incorporate instruments for monitoring their achievements. Furthermore, there is a potential risk of failing to identify skills and knowledge, which are necessary for achieving strategic objectives of an organisation.

From this perspective, it would be impossible to implement necessary changes regardless of the allocated resources because of the initial misunderstanding of company’s needs. At the same time, there is a risk of launching initiatives or offering educational materials, which are too challenging or too easy as well as failing to choose appropriate planning or supervising techniques⁷. Finally, implementing learning initiatives is a substantial change in the working environment. Even though it is a beneficial and useful change, similar alterations are at high risks of failing due to employees’ unwillingness to make efforts for enhancing personal development.

Still, there are several factors, which have a significant impact on stimulating companies to implement programmes aimed at teaching employees. First and foremost, this necessity is usually determined by an environment in which an organisation operates. It is both internal and external surrounding that affects decisions to invest in training employees. That said, organisation’s strategic objectives, quality expectations, changes in customer demand, and other similar alterations lead to the recognition of the significance of launching learning initiatives⁸.

Moreover, a form of organisation itself, as well as an industry of operation, is closely connected to development of training activities. For instance, sectors dependent upon excessive use of the newest technologies commonly choose to train their employees. The same can be said about organisations, which operate in the most developed countries. In this case, similar decision can be explained by the pressure from competitors and having access to resources necessary for financing workplace learning. Finally, it is affected by the level of management practices development. Because workplace learning requires both thorough planning and skills of organising employees, companies with more productive and efficient managers are more likely to launch educational programmes⁹.

The Role of Individual Biography in Workplace Learning

Individuals pay a crucial role in workplace learning, as these are actions of every individual that contribute to organisation’s performance and determine the success of learning initiatives. Still, there are different aspects of the connection between individuals and workplace learning. To begin with, there are several dimensions of individual learning. For instance, there is a classroom-based experience, which refers to official education and all knowledge gained while attending educational institutions.

At the same time, individuals are affected by their social knowledge, i.e. all skills and knowledge they obtained while communicating with other members of their community. It is imperative to note that this dimension is not linked to the first one, as it is determined by activities performed outside of a classroom. It is commonly referred to as cultural experience. Moreover, there is a personal dimension, which is a set of personal traits, talents, and aspirations or each person. Finally, there is a workplace dimension of individual knowledge, and it is the intersection between the three dimensions mentioned above.

That said, the way an individual affects workplace learning is identified by their previous experience and knowledge, thus the contribution they make to the ability to embrace changes and become more competent¹⁰. It is a peculiar interrelation that as well influences predisposition to sharing knowledge and carrying past experience over to new conditions and environments. It is crucial to note that this ability is not universal, as it varies based on tenure, age, and educational background. For instance, younger employees are more willing to embrace changes and gain new knowledge because they are more dynamic, especially compared to elder employees.

Moreover, those with tertiary education tend to welcome similar initiatives, while individuals with secondary education are less agile when it comes to alterations in organisational regulations and implementation of new programmes. Finally, employees with short tenures are as well more willing to gain more knowledge compared to those with more than six years of experience. However, it is vital to note that the last group of employees is not perceived equally, as it is considered that those with short tenures should be paid more attention to and motivated to get involved in training programmes, while others are usually ignored¹¹.

Nevertheless, all dimensions mentioned above are incomplete without the personal dimension, which is sometimes referred to as the personal agency. The role of this agency is critical, as an individual should sort knowledge and seek an appropriate developed skill or acceptable cultural norm or social value and find ways to incorporate them in a current environment of operation. That said, it is the personal dimension of an individual that serves as a foundation for acquiring the process of workplace learning and creating new knowledge. The rationale for pointing to this statement is the fact that personal involvement is the basis of development, and it is development that makes up the ground of workplace learning¹². At the same time, individuals not only create knowledge but also shape a unique environment, i.e. embrace workplace learning defined from the perspective of participation metaphor¹³.

To sum up, self-identity and self-image, as well as perceived knowledge, is what determines the role of an individual in workplace learning. However, this sense of self is impossible to shape without social interactions and communication. From this perspective, workplace learning is seen as collaboration between employees with their self-perception and other team members. It means that it is a social process, which is conducted through the prism of personal achievements and sharing personal experiences related to carrying out job duties. Only individual contribution to reshaping identities of other members of a team by expressing opinions, helping to develop particular skills, and designing unique frameworks for addressing non-routine tasks, as well as make judgements in collaboration with others, can be referred to as the process of workplace learning¹⁴.

Influence of Agencies on Workplace Learning

The role of agencies was underestimated for a long time. Instead, the primary focus was always made on individuals and highlighting that learning is an individual process, which is not influenced by policies or atmosphere in workplace. Nevertheless, the impact of agencies on workplace learning is critical, as nowadays emphasis is put on participation instead of individualisation. To begin with, it is imperative to point out that as workplaces are constantly changing, some individuals cannot become involved in the process of workplace learning. It is especially true about mature employees and women. Both groups of population are usually limited in their access to workplace learning, especially if they do not possess enough skills and knowledge to be employed.

Mature adults often cannot keep up with the times and get acquainted with the newest technologies, while women are usually prejudiced because of their traditional role of carers, especially after lengthy maternity leaves. In this case, it is critical to promote the involvement of agencies in workplace learning so that everyone has equal access to employment. This step is beneficial because these people might become a source of inspiration or new ideas, which might be advantageous for boosting productivity and enhancing organisational performance. That said, the role of agencies in workplace can be viewed from two perspectives – policy instruments and motivation.

Before reviewing policy instruments and motivation, it is essential to point to the existence of peculiar barriers, which are determined by the perception of individuals and their role in workplace learning. One of them was mentioned above – failing to identify organisation’s needs and knowledge necessary to achieve them. It can be explained by the fact that, in most cases, managers tend to see employees as a homogenous body with the identical set of skills and knowledge because they are predetermined by particular job duties. However, in fact, they are different. That is why it is critical to find out specific needs before making attempts to address them and assure that projected learning programmes would be both accessible and challenging. Furthermore, it is essential to keep in mind that each individual has a unique worldview. That is why they perceive identical management actions or policy changes in a different manner, and this perception cannot be unified¹⁵.

As it was mentioned above, there are two potential ways of agency involvement in workplace learning – policies and motivation. Speaking of agencies, it is critical to note that they refer not only to an organisation and senior executives but also to governments and states. That said, the emphasis is put on cooperation between organisations and the state. In case of supporting workplace learning, first of all, the focus is made on financing educational programmes, which can be both official and unofficial.

Here, the idea is to allocate resources necessary for benefitting both vulnerable groups of population such as mature adults and those employees, who do not feel oppressed. The state is involved in the process in case if organisations do not possess adequate volume of financial resources necessary for helping vulnerable groups of population¹⁶. Moreover, governments are requested to invest in the employability of citizens, i.e. turning them into easily adaptable to external changes in the labour market. It means that in case of viewing states and governments as agencies, specific attention is paid to satisfying requirements of the external environment¹⁷.

As for the role of organisations as agencies, it can be viewed through the perception of workplace learning. It is commonly seen in the readiness to invest in the development of employees and implementation of educational incentives, which would be beneficial for achieving determined strategic objectives. Moreover, policies are synonymous with the strategies deployed for meeting internal and external standards. It means that an organisation might either choose to foster employee development or allocate resources for hiring new people and purchasing more equipment necessary for boosting productivity. That said, there are two approaches to viewing organisational policy – expansive and restrictive, i.e. supportive and oppressing.

Moreover, the role of agencies in workplace learning can be investigated in the light of motivation. This tool is commonly chosen in case of employee non-participation in workplace learning initiatives. It is a subjective factor, i.e. seen in a unique way by each individual and having a direct effect on each of them. However, agencies should identify ways for promoting it. For instance, implementing accessible programmes is an option for motivating team members to become actively involved in the process.

Here, the idea is to highlight that becoming more competent and obtaining new knowledge would be beneficial for becoming more self-confident and improving self-image as well as reputation¹⁸. At the same time, deploying such techniques as positive motivation, i.e. pointing to the connection between knowledge and better performance, which is synonymous with higher remunerations for work, can be viewed as a productive trick. Finally, negative motivation can as well be mentioned. However, forcing employees to share their experiences or become involved in learning programmes would have a deteriorating influence on the image of an organisation and the atmosphere in the workplace.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be said that workplace learning is a vital work-related practice. However, it is based on both personal and social grounds, as it is impossible to implement any incentive without the two. When assessing this phenomenon, it is imperative to realise that its emergence and existence is affected by numerous factors, but dynamism of work-related interactions, globalisation, and fast developments in the implementation of the newest technologies in workplace are the most common ones. Moreover, even though there are different approaches to defining it, it is an individual that has a robust impact on success of any incentive in this area of work relations.

In fact, individual agency is a perfect determinant of workplace learning efficiency due to an exceptional combination of three metaphors used for defining this phenomenon. That said, individuals collect knowledge (acquisition metaphor), shape a unique workplace environment incorporating all acceptable norms and values (participation metaphor), and create new knowledge, which is applicable to the set environment only (knowledge creation metaphor). Still, although the role of an individual is crucial, the significance of agencies such as organisations and states should not be ignored because these are agencies that design frameworks for fruitful social interactions between individuals and allocate resources necessary for supporting them.

Bibliography

Baron, S., Workplace learning: subjective motives and supervisor support matter, Springer, Berlin, 2011.

Billet, S., ‘Learning throughout working life: a relational independence between personal and social agency’, British Journal of Educational Sciences, vol. 56, no. 1, 2008, pp. 39-58.

Catts, R., Fulk, I. & Wallace, R., Vocational learning: innovative theory and practice, Springer, New York, 2011.

Coetzer, A., ‘Employee perceptions of their workplaces as learning environments’, Journal of Workplace Learning, vol. 19, no. 7, 2007, pp. 417-434.

Ingle S. & Duckworth V., Teaching and training vocational learners, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2013.

Malloch, M. et al., The SAGE handbook of workplace learning, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2011.

Rossi, T. et al., Workplace learning in physical education: emerging teachers’ stories from the staffroom and beyond, Routledge, New York, 2015.

Timma, H., ‘Experiencing the workplace: shaping working identities through assessment, work, and learning’, Studies in Continuing Education, vol. 29, no. 2, 2007, pp. 163-179.

Footnotes

M. Malloch et al., The SAGE handbook of workplace learning, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2011, p. 56.
Ibid., p. 52.
Ibid., pp. 230-231.
T. Rossi et al., Workplace learning in physical education: emerging teachers’ stories from the staffroom and beyond, Routledge, New York, 2015, p. 46.
Ibid., p. 48.
Ibid., p. 54.
S. Ingle & V. Duckworth, Teaching and training vocational learners, SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2013, p. 150.
M. Malloch et al., op. cit., p. 48.
Ibid., p. 49.
Ibid., p. 53.
A. Coetzer, ‘Employee perceptions of their workplaces as learning environments’, Journal of Workplace Learning, vol. 19, no. 7, 2007, p. 430.
S. Billet, ‘Learning throughout working life: a relational independence between personal and social agency’, British Journal of Educational Sciences, vol. 56, no. 1, 2008, p. 50.
Ibid., p. 53.
H. Timma, ‘Experiencing the workplace: shaping working identities through assessment, work, and learning’, Studies in Continuing Education, vol. 29, no. 2, 2007, p. 168.
Ibid., p. 431.
R. Catts, I. Fulk & R. Wallace, Vocational learning: innovative theory and practice, Springer, New York, 2011, p. 226.
S. Baron, Workplace learning: subjective motives and supervisor support matter, Springer, Berlin, 2011, p. 15.
Ibid., p. 66.

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