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Introduction
Prejudice at workplace is a social malpractice having its origin from racism and segregation ideologies. Prejudice is manifested through cases of gender discrimination, racial outbursts and other associated work imbalances, which prevent development, and advancement of opportunities available in organizations (Mankin 18). Social interaction allows for exchange of innovative ideas as well as disbursement of opportunities that perpetuate career development and growth. Prejudice at workplace undermines any prospects for mutual interaction among employees that could lead to sharing of noble and innovative ideas. For instance, gender discrimination is a form of injustice preventing people from pursuing their careers satisfactorily. Employers with a chauvinist mindset have created barriers blocking women from advancing in the corporate ladder at workplace. In addition, recruitment and selection are sometimes pegged on gender parities and dimensions.
Equity at workplace is therefore a complex phenomenon that is based on cultural beliefs and organizational culture. Conceptualization of discrimination and prejudice at workplace is an important parameter when pursuing equity and justice. The attitudes developed by employees in a work environment characterized by prejudice and discrimination are crucial in managing the vice. The perceptions and attitudes developed by workers, as regards to prejudice while on duty are a serious deterrent to achieving organizational goals and objectives agreed (McMahon & Niemeyer 12). Both the conscious and unconscious biases that manifest in work prejudice decrease opportunities available for constructive social interactions. Discriminatory decisions by management such as dismissals and salary suspensions are conceptualized as crucial workplace dynamics based on prejudice. Power differentials within management hierarchy constitute another institutional practice of discrimination.
Disparate treatment theory
Discriminatory bias is exhibited through gender disparities and racial segregation of workers. Managing diversity is a major problem underpinning liabilities associated with discriminatory bias and gender oppression. There is need for affirmative action and designing of appropriate work structures, which ensure that social and economic operations are effectively structured. According to the disparate treatment theory, deliberate reliance on vague stereotypes and policies serves to limit interaction apart from preventing affirmative action (Kelley 20). Women, disabled persons and other minorities are subsequently excluded from important employment opportunities because of stereotypes and discrimination beliefs. In the modern age, women and other minority groups in the society have made significant progress towards attaining lucrative employment positions. However, there remain barriers to advancement in view of the corporate leadership, management and career progression. Inequalities also exist in remuneration since women and minorities are particularly underpaid academic credentials notwithstanding. Training and work experience is limited to the affluent members of the society especially patriarchal beneficiaries.
Social science theory (motivational and cognitive perspective)
The approach taken by the social cognitive theory is based on the premise that categorization of workers at workplace distorts complexity. Categories have a negative connotation to employees’ attitudes since colleagues perceive one another differently due to the underlying social classes. Stereotypes are a normative construct that influence the manner in which exchange of information is done. Events are conceptualized through specific processes that identify with beliefs and cultural practices that match with organizational culture. Such discrimination is therefore exemplified by wrong decision-making and problem solving interventions like sidelining women from active participation in leadership at workplace (Handel 32). Women in such settings are perceived as the weak gender thereby denying them promotions and training opportunities for career advancement. Cognitive stereotypes condemn women to lower cadre jobs at the disguise of their motherhood responsibilities. Women are therefore expected to spend time with their families instead of travelling from place to place for work. There is also the element of favoritism derived from the social need of a group of workers to a state of belonging and companionship. Negative group stereotypes escalate to form discriminative biases that restrain workers from achieving equity and justice at workplace. Self-defeating strategies are developed from such stereotypes that are then entrenched in policymaking processes. Exclusion and devaluation of persons based on their gender and social class becomes a common practice, which is even tolerated by the mainstream society.
Reorganization of the workplace
Egalitarian norms and principles have shaped the modern globalized workplace from the primitive segregation and exclusive ideologies into hierarchical and bureaucratic systems. Under this new structure, job security is valued, career development and advancement cherished and mutual interaction esteemed. Coexistence, advancement and autonomy have provided the foundation for a competitive, globalized and knowledge-based job market (Koppes 15). Organizations are therefore dynamic in terms of their strategies for hiring, training and promoting employees. Outsourcing has been extensively implemented in management practice. Employment agencies and firms are usually contracted to select and recruit part-time employees for large organizations with a view of minimizing on bureaucracy and prejudice.
Recruitment and selection process should be clear and concise to the job context. The most appropriate selection approach for hiring an employee for a particular job should use a criterion, which matches job description with relevant skills, competencies, and work experience (Doyle 24). Job description provides sufficient information for the initial stages of the hiring process to take place. Modern globalised workplace demands that employees are not necessarily specialized for particular task. Job descriptions are currently broader in details apart from basic requirements of the tasks. Human resource professionals should therefore utilize an integrated approach that measures applicant’s ability to learn new skills at work beyond the specifications of their employment position.
That notwithstanding, a basic criterion should used to match specific skills, competencies and credentials of prospective employees with minimum requirements for particular jobs. Recruitment and selection approach therefore follows a procedure where job applicants are introduced to recruiters, asked to fill application forms, interviewed and finally tested for consistency to certain personnel scores (Millard 17). Data obtained from completed application forms facilitate the process of hiring the right person for the job in question. Applicant’s data is also useful in predicting future performance levels for recruited employees. Performance, experience, skills and competencies are some of the terminologies applicable during hiring. The best criterion for hiring should be free, fair and value-based in order to match the right skills and qualifications of prospective employees with various job contexts.
Modern relationship between politics and religion in the United States
Introduction
There is an apparent close relationship between religion and politics in the United States. Religion has a played a big role in social and economic transformations during various political events in the American history. However, modernization has led progressive decline in a God-centered religious perspective to a human-centered notion characterized by secularization (Calhoun-Brown & Wald, 2007). As such, religious decline has reflected human response to the conquest dimension of religion in American politics. Americans are more interested on how relevant religious doctrines practices and doctrines apply to their natural lifestyles. Christianity has been the main religion in America since the slave period. Slave laborers employed to work in industries experienced much suffering which prompted their strong belief in Christianity as a source of relief.
The oppressed majority of the American poor population dominated the society at a time where social exploitation was rampant. Religion therefore persisted because of extreme social difficulties which confronted the society. This religious ideology during the early years of the American history was subsequently exposed to widespread criticism as modernization and civilization took the centre stage in American politics. As such, the previous political relevance of religion and ethnicity got displaced by modern factors characterized by “social classification, occupation standing and socio-economic status” (Bird& Clegg, 2007). Political life in the United States has therefore shifted progressively from ethnic-based religious ideologies to more “mature political systems” which characterize an industrialized society. Contemporary United States is a secularized society with much decline of religious institutions and ethnic practices.
Nature of relationship between religion and politics
According to the premise of secularization, religion is regarded as a specialized institution with limited political influence. Religious affiliation is an independent matter which is supported by social institutions in society. According to Marxist theories in religion, modernization has a positive impact on economic development while it negatively leads to the decline in religious belief (Dark, 2005). However, the church in America has resisted a total shift towards secularization as a strong religious institution which plays an increasingly greater role in development programs particularly charity. Church membership and loyalty among the various Christian denominations is a product of religious consciousness and support from the American public.
Organized religious organizations are always ranked above “state institutions, mass media, labor unions and government corporations” among others in opinion polls (Calhoun-Brown & Wald, 2007). Religious intolerance within the political sphere has been reinforced science and modern civilization trends which have a greater emphasis on human-oriented perspective in governance and development. For instance, the 2000 presidential campaigns pitying Senator John McCain and incumbent President George Bush demonstrated the contest that exists between religious traditions and political processes. The electioneering process was marred by accusations and counter-accusations critical to policies in Iraq among other contentious issues. President Bush is on record as having sought the support of state-friendly church organizations in his bid for a second term in office.
Essentially, the churches defended President Bush Republican campaign by portraying him as a god-fearing leader who was being used by God to conquer terrorism propagated by Islam. President Bush narrow victory in the 2000 election is a consequence of the strong support from both the Catholic and Protestant voters who turned out in large numbers to defend their religious cause. In addition, there are controversial issues between religion and national issues such as “abortion, pornography, homosexuality, stem cell research, and euthanasia and women empowerment” (Simmons, 2008). Church-state relations are also contested on other dimensions which include issues on taxation, public property ownership and government-funding for organized religious institutions. Republicans have also been quoted pushing for tax preferences to married couples instead of single mothers in support of the Christian family institution.
During the 1990’s, various religious uprisings in America accompanied with religious conflicts led to the collapse of European communism. Religious differences and political controversy in the American society are therefore deep-seated. On one hand, American churches are known to push for a transparent society which upholds human rights. The church is also very proactive in organizing humanitarian relief for political refugees and the marginalized in the society (Bird& Clegg, 2007). Historically, the American church contested the participation of United States in various wars. For instance, American invasion of Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan received significant opposition from the church on humanitarian grounds.
Religious differences between Christians and Muslims compounded with conflicts in civilizations and the American foreign policy has led to the emergence of significant Islamic fundamentalism. Perpetrators of terrorist attacks in American territory base their grievances on religion particularly Islamic fundamentalism. Terrorist attacks on Pentagon and the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 were reacting to the controversial American foreign policy in Middle East (Dark, 2005). The Muslim world and the United States have therefore been engaged in political conflicts and wars. The Muslim world considers United States and their associates as crusaders due to their affiliation with Israel. In response, United States has been involved in wars against Iraq and Afghanistan as an attempt to destroy regimes that support terrorist groups. However, American forces have been accused of insulting innocent civilians in Iraq and Afghanistan during war further fueling tensions between the Muslim world and the predominantly Christian west.
Organized religious organizations subscribe to their sacred obligation to engage political actors and institutions in constructive dialogue through defined processes characterized by processes such as “exchange, bargaining and negotiation”(Gökay& Fouskas, 2005). On the other hand, modernization and the process of secularization have prompted the loss of legitimate authority of the religious social sphere in political realm. In the modern secular world, people define their destiny through their personal identity in the marketplace. As such, political interests are aligned with social stratification of the society which excludes religious principles that are inconsistent with science and modern civilization. The religion of the modern world places legitimate authority on individualism and social reform. Religious institutions which have survived historical evolutions of the modern life are those which are concerned with social welfare and centers for development.
The general perception is that religious controversy cannot be tolerated within the political realm due to economic constraints arising from outdated traditional rituals. Contemporary United States is no longer manipulated by religion but is influenced public relations intrigues. Religion has remained the domain of social development as a specialized institution consistent with individual conviction. Church membership is a voluntary exercise thereby preserving the status of organized religions. Religious institutions have therefore preserved their defining traditions and beliefs by resisting secular forces. These organized religions are popular because of their great contribution in social and economic development. Churches are equally a major beneficiary of private philanthropy from well-wishers in various sectors such as health, education and community development. The industrialized economy of United States is therefore benefitting from the survival of organized religions concerned with social reform. Churches, which are typically involved with emotional and spiritual worship alone without paying attention to economic development, are rendered inconsequential.
The public is more concerned with supporting organized religions financially provided in accomplishing economic projects in the same manner people contribute toward state projects by paying taxes. The underlying objective is based on promoting social and economic wellbeing. Above all, church sermons are dedicated on issues of importance to the society such as justice, morality, life and death. On the other hand, other churches and religions have comprised on their traditional values by adapting to the secular cultures emerging from the modern world. Modernization is identified by institutions such as “cities, industries, schools and the marketplace” (Calhoun-Brown & Wald, 2007). The political agenda is occupied with issues such as “abortion, life extension, genetic engineering, euthanasia, in vitro fertilization, embryo experimentation among others”. Organized religions are therefore involved with issues such as fighting for the rights of workers and the marginalized politically. The church preaches against poverty and the oppressed in the society in order to direct political actions and decisions appropriately. The church and state are therefore separated by a diversity of issues which are currently compounded with religious pluralism. Democracy has actually contributed towards religious pluralism and ethnic diversity in United States. There is widespread controversy on whether religion refers to certain practices and practices of a particular faith or a personal conviction about life. United States is therefore no longer being considered a “nation of God” but a secular state that subscribes to modern civilization and diversities in economic systems (Dark, 2005).
Works cited
Bird, Wayne & Clegg, Taurus. Missing in America: Making an Eternal Difference in the World Next Door. Pittsburgh, PA: Group, 2007
Calhoun-Brown, Aaron & Wald, Dick, K. Religion and Politics in the United States. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.
Dark, Doyle. The Gospel according to America: a Meditation on a God-blessed, Christ- haunted idea. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005.
Doyle, Christine. Work and Organizational Psychology: An Introduction with Attitude. London: Rout ledge, 2004.
Gökay, Bass & Fouskas, Valiance, 2005. The new American Imperialism: Bush’s war on Terror and Blood for Oil. Westport CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
Handel, Jeremy M. The Sociology of Organizations: Classic, Contemporary, and Critical Readings. London: SAGE, 2003.
Kelley, Kathryn. Issues, theory, and Research in Industrial/organizational Psychology. London: Elsevier, 2002.
Koppes, Laura L. Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational Psychology. London: Rout ledge, 2007.
Mankin, Donald A. Classics of Industrial and Organizational psychology. Moore Pub. Co., 2008.
McMahon, Timothy J. & Niemeyer, Walter E. Classics of Organizational Behavior. New York: California Waveland Press, 2005.
Millard, Lynne. Understanding occupational and organizational psychology. London: SAGE, 2005.
Simmons, Protas D. Faith and Health: Religion, Science, and Public Policy. Macon: Mercer University Press, 2008.
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