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Abstract
Medium specificity is a concept that is very common in film theory in the world of arts today. It basically means a piece of art or artistic medium that represents the characteristics and qualities of the raw material from which it is made. This study looked at medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in films from the perspective of Bus 174. The study adopted a phenomenological case study design. The researcher looked at the various film theories and how they conceptualize image on one hand and life and death on the other. This was by using Bus 174 as the reference point.
Introduction
Background Information
Medium specificity is a concept that is popular in the film industry today. The concept can be looked at by defining the two terms that make it up and then relating them to art as media. The two terms can be defined separately so as to get a deep insight into the concept. They can be defined from the perspectives of different scholars. As Bernstein (2012) states, the word ‘specificity’ is used to describe a scenario in the arts or to depict the specific nature of events as they occur in the environment. Medium on the other hand is the original material used in making art and which is brought about through creativity on the part of the artist. The two words are also used within the context of life, death and temporality of images as far as film as a form of art is concerned.
So far the researcher has looked at the two concepts differently. At this juncture, the author will look at the two words together and analyse the meaning they convey when combined. The term ‘medium specificity’ implies that the ‘character’ expressed by the work of art reflects the original ‘character’ or state of the components used in compiling it. In other words, a piece of art that is ‘medium specific’ takes the forms of the raw materials from which it was made. The two terms therefore are linked and are very significant in art today. Under different circumstances, the term ‘medium specificity’ exhibits the actual phenomenon that exists in the artistic environment. This process of imitating the actual or original raw material is referred to as the effect.
It is noted that that medium specificity takes into consideration several effects. For instance, when paint is used to cover a given surface, it takes the shape of the surface being painted. The paint assumes the structure and appearance of the canvas that was used. This is how Shankel (2011) describes the relationship between materiality and the effect of characterisation. This is not to say that the paint will change the colour of the surface being painted or the canvas. The actual effect of the canvas remains the same. The final product in this case takes the form of paint and brings out the actual materiality in its art to maintain a “………close connotation of characters” (Shankel 2011).
Problem Statement
As already stated earlier in this paper, medium specificity is an expression that is common in contemporary film theories today. According to Bernstein (2012), the expression can be looked at by defining the two words “medium” and “specificity”. According to this author, specificity within the context of arts can be conceptualized as the “…….quality or fact (of) being specific in operation (and) effect” (Bernstein 2012, p. 1). It can also be conceptualized as the ability of a given phenomenon, object or subject to possess a specific character. On its part, medium within the context of arts can be viewed as the “……….raw material (and) mode of expression (that is used) in an artistic or creative (undertaking)” (Bernstein 2012, p. 1).
Having looked at specificity and medium as distinct terms and expression in the artistic world, Bernstein turns his attention to the combination of the two words to form the term ‘medium specificity’. The latter is defined as the “…..quality of being specific (in both operation and effect) to the character of the raw material being used as a mode of artistic expression” (Bernstein 2012, p. 2). From this author’s arguments, one can conclude that medium specificity connotes an artwork that manifests the characteristics, traits and qualities of the raw material which it is made from. A case in point is a painting as an artistic media. The paint can be said to be medium specific under given circumstances. It has to be made of the paint and the surface on which the paint is spread (a phenomenon Shankel [2011] refers to as operation). The paint should also “represent and imitate” the two materials from which it is made, a phenomenon that is referred to as effect by the author (Shankel 2011).
According to Bernstein (2012), medium specificity is dependent on the “distinct materiality” (p. 3) of the artistic media such as a painting or a photograph. However, it should be noted that the qualities that characterize or categorize a medium are neither irreducible nor inherent. Rather, an artistic medium such as film is more or less a tool and practices that has being structured historically.
To this end, the author is going to analyse the concept and how it has been used in the film Bus 174. In addition, the author is going to analyse death, life, and temporality of images in the film.
Temporality of images is a concept that is used in the film to represent tense. Tense is important as it is used to put images within a certain time frame and in a given context. What happens behind the scenes is always represented by gestures used in the film. However, this fails to account for presentness, past tense and even the future. To contextualise this point, the author will use an example in literature. For instance, book writers can go back in time and present information in the past tense whereas the film does not have the capability to shift to the past to fish out information pertaining to a particular incidence. Temporality of images becomes an important aspect of this research which will be used to depict how the film was presented.
Having this idea in mind, the researcher will incorporate the thinking of various film theorists and how their arguments relate to this particular film. This is especially so on what the various thinkers have to say about temporality of images and such other issues. As already indicated, the researcher will analyse life and death in images to bring out the essence of the film. The use of images becomes a vital tool in explaining how and why the film was acted in a particular manner.
Some of the most influential aspects in the presentation of the film include Bazin’s classical film theories. Film theory is a collection of frameworks and principles that interpret and explain how films are made and received both by the audience and the critics. The frameworks are not static or frozen in time and space; rather, they are dynamic phenomena that vary from one period to the other. The theories borrow from other fields such as philosophy and social sciences.
Bazin is one of the most popular film critics of all time. This scholar made a case for films based on objective reality. These are for example documentaries. He also advocated for invisible directors. He argued for the use of deep focus, wide shots and such other traits of film. According to him, a film should be a manifestation of the director’s personal vision.
The study then proceeds to contemporary cultural critics such as Barthes who argue for temporality of images and their unique relationship to life and in extension death. The researcher noted that modern day writers such as Mulvey and Doane had taken up this line of inquiry, arguing for a specifically cinematic form of time.
The researcher analyses the ideas presented above from the perspective of Bus 174. This is a Brazilian documentary revolving around a life and death event. The documentary raises questions on both televisual and cinematic representation.
Research Objectives
The objectives of a given study can be taken as the aims that the researcher has in mind and which they expect to attain through the findings of the study. This research had one major objective and three specific objectives. By addressing the specific objectives, the researcher would have effectively addressed the major objective of the study. The major and specific objectives are listed below:
Major Objective
The major aim of the research is to analyse the film Bus 174 and find out how it depicts medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images.
Specific Objectives
- Analyse medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in arts with special focus on films
- Analyse medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in the context of the film Bus 174
- The research also seeks to analyse the arguments of contemporary cultural critics regarding the relationship between images, life and death and how this relationship affects contemporary films.
Research Questions
It is noted that that research questions are related to research objectives. This is given the fact that by answering the research questions, the researcher would have effectively achieved the objectives of the study. Therefore, like in the case of the research objectives, the current study had one major research question and three specific questions. Again by answering the specific research questions, the researcher would have effectively addressed the major research question. The major and specific research questions are listed below:
Major Research Question
How does the film Bus 174 reflect medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in film?
Specific Questions
- How is medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images reflected in arts especially films?
- How are medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images reflected in the film Bus 174?
- What are some of the arguments made by both classical and contemporary film theorists with regard to medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in film?
- How are the arguments of classical and contemporary film theorists on medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images reflected in the film Bus 174?
Scope and Limitations of the Study
In the process of formulating the research design and collecting data for the study, the researcher identified several limitations that were inherent in the study. The limitations were both from within and from without the research design. It is not possible to address every aspect of a given topic in a single study. On realising this, the researcher found it important to focus the study in a particular area of interest. This formed the scope and limitations of the study. It was the boundary within which the study was conducted. Here are the scope and limitations of the study:
- The research was limited to the study of medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images. This is despite the fact that images have many other characters which were left out of this study
- The study was also limited to film as an artistic medium
- The study was limited to the film Bus 174. This is despite the fact that there are other films that express medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images
Significance of the Study
In any given field, there are a number of studies that are going on at any one given time. As a result of this, any new study conducted in the field has to be justified. One way to justify the study is to identify its importance or the value that it is going to add into the field. This in other words is the significance of the study. The current study was not an exception. Following are potential practical applications of the findings of the study:
- The findings of this study will contribute to the wealth of knowledge in this field. This is by coming up with new information
- The findings will help film theorists and other stakeholders in relating the concepts of film theories to real life
- The researcher will identify gaps that exists in this field and in addition make recommendations for future studies in the field
In this section, the author introduced the reader to the study by addressing some of the major highlights of the research. The areas addressed include background information, problem statement, research objectives, research questions, as well as the significance of the study. This was to give the reader an idea on what the whole study was all about.
In the next chapter the author is going to introduce the reader to the film Bus 174. This is the film which the study will revolve around. In other words, it is the case for this study. Several aspects of the film will be put into perspective. These include the synopsis as well as the main themes of the film.
Bus 174: The Film
Introduction
Bus 174 is a film depicting a life and death scenario and which was produced way back in the year 2002. It is a debut film which was directed by Jose Padilha in form of a documentary reflecting life in Brazil. In this documentary, a young man by the name Sandro Rosa do Nascimento boarded a bus plying route 174 with the intention of stealing from the passengers. The heist did not go as planned and it turned into a tragedy for the young man. The events taking place in the bus were telecasted live on national television in Brazil (Villarejo 2006, p.117).
Bus 174: Synopsis
The film revolves around a failed robbery in which the hijacker takes the passengers of the bus hostage to avoid being arrested by the police. This Brazilian documentary tries to analyse the scenes captured live and transmitted to the national televisions as the poor young man named Sandro do Nascimento commandeers Bus 174. Live cameras captured almost five hours of the tense scene as the police tried their best to save the people trapped in the bus (Young 2003, p.29).
As the police and television crew converge on the scene, several civilians as well as the police are interviewed on what took place prior to the hijacking. It was found that Nascimento was avenging the death of his Aunt who was killed few years ago. On top of that, he had escaped death from police who were targeting a group of young men who planned and carried out a massacre in a church in the year 1993. All this information was gathered from a person who was identified as Nascimento’s relative (Young 2003, p. 30).
Nascimento took the passengers hostage as the police continued to surround the scene of crime. He assured everyone that he had no intention of killing anyone. He reported that he had no intention of harming members of the press, police, passengers as well as the civilians who were standing by. The driver escaped through the window while the police surrounded the bus. Nascimento was demanding that another driver be deployed to the scene immediately. He even asked for more weapons from the police, threatening that failure to comply with his wishes will leave him no option but to take action. At around six o’clock local time, he vowed to kill one of the passengers since none of his demands had been met (Villarejo 2006, p. 117).
One hour later, Nascimento decided to attract the attention of the police and the onlookers by faking death. All along he used the passengers as human shields, a fact that prevented the police from acting. Using a 38 calibre revolver, he fired and ordered some of the passengers to act as though they have been shot dead. He called the attention of the police to this supposed execution but nothing happened. He tried to pull several pranks on the police and members of the public and the media to show his seriousness but none of his wishes were granted.
Given that no driver was sent to the scene, he decided to use one of the hostages by the name of Geisa Firmo (a school teacher) as human shield to walk out of the bus. As he exited the bus, his attention was focused on one side of the crowd. He was exposed from behind but he did not know this. An armed police officer crept on him from behind. As the police was approaching the two, Nascimento turned and jerked his hostage from the grip of the police. Unfortunately he lost his balance and fell down but he still held onto the man he was using as a shield (Villarejo 2006, p. 119).
On falling down, the armed police officer shot at him several times. Other police officers joined in and converged on the place where Nascimento and the teacher were lying. The shots did not meet the target given that he was still using the human shield and the police were wary. But at long last the police were able to immobilise him. The onlookers rushed to the scene to take a look at the person who had gripped their attention all this time. They shouted in unison “kill him! Kill him!” (Villarejo 2006, p.120).
Nascimento was escorted to a police car under heavy guard and after sometime, it was announced that he has died. The announcement read that he died of asphyxiation meaning that he was suffocated and deprived of oxygen. Different reports indicated that he was shot dead and in fact several police officers who were in charge of the situation were charged with murder.
One victim used by Nascimento was shot dead by the advancing police officers behind the culprit. There were conflicting reports as some of the media houses reported that the lady who was a school teacher was shot four times on the face. But the police on the other hand deny this claiming that she was shot just once. The media concluded that Nascimento may have been shot by the approaching police officer when they were struggling with the man on the ground. The charges that were preferred against the police were ruled out on the basis of the fact that the shooting was not intended.
Bus 174: Major Themes
Postmodern Documentary
The term documentary can be used to describe the way truth is organised and presented to the audience. Theoretically, documentaries are moving away from the perception of reality to what photography implies. At the heart of the problem, truth must prevail. The film Bus 174 can be described as a postmodern documentary given that it is a recreation of real life event that actually took place. The movie uses imagery to represent people moving away from certain truths to an indexical relationship with the subject (Bazin 1999, p. 44).
In this segment, the author is going to dwell much on the truth behind the postmodern documentary which is film Bus 174. It is obvious that the film contains some aspects that are associated with documentaries in contemporary society. This includes the use of sophisticated cameras and other photography equipments as well as depiction of some of the traits of a postmodern society. This is for example the trait of the clash between different classes in the society; the clash between the government and the governed. The creator of the movie uses images to depict how the young man (represents the common man) clashes with the police (representing those in authority) (Bazin 1999, p. 47).
There are other events that clearly come out in this film. These include the illustration of Latin America as having a different cultural background from other societies in the world. Secondly the documentary incorporates some aspects of modernity which include film as well as cinematic arts. Finally the aesthetics used by the director to drive the point home are fascinating and has attracted the attention of stakeholders in the film industry as a whole (Blakeney 2009, p. 4).
This film is the first in Brazilian history as far as documentation in film is concerned. The film has been made popular by the fact that the director used a sophisticated strategy to create this art. The director made use of both aesthetic and narrative components that characterise fiction to come up with this film. The art is rich with tension from the spectators at the scene of the crime as well as the audience watching the film. Some contradictions are however evident in the film. For example the focus of the film keeps shifting from the spectators around the scene and those watching the events on the live telecast (Bazin 2009, p. 59).
Documentary has many features that can be found in fiction. This makes it one of the most popular forms of art in cinemas. The characteristics of the film are in line with the expectations in film making. Cultural aspects in Brazil also play a huge role in determining the kind of film that is suitable for such a generation. In this case, it is noted criminality is a common feature of this society. One of the ways to express the gap between criminal and the justice system is through the use of reality productions or documentaries like in this case (Young 2003, p.38).
The Theme of Time
The use of time in the film helps in presenting the state of the country in an attempt to denounce crime and injustice taking place. Use of live telecast is a presentation of the reality in the present form. Elsewhere in this paper, the author has mentioned the use of temporality in images to identify the relationship between the film and time. The reader will agree that there are different time spans that have been used in the film, for example the chronological and the psychological time spans. All this will be looked into as the author addresses the use of temporality of images in the film (Young 2003, p.41).
Realism
Another important theme that clearly comes out in the film Bus 174 is realism. Different films have used different methods to represent the reality in the world. Documentation has been widely used to represent real-life scenarios in a real world situation in the film Bus 174. Unlike the other methods which are predominantly used by other film producers, this film is able to capture the concept of reality. The film is said to always possess the present but according to Bazin,
No matter how long a film is, every frame at the instant of its projection portrays the present – a flashback may be supposed to be occurring in the “then” of the story but it is on the “now” of the screen, just as it was in the “now” of the present mind – and any written word rests on the page, or is read, in its present tense (Bazin 2009, p. 52).
The film uses time to represent events that took place long time ago. For instance, the director tells us about the past of the hijacker and which made him carry out the awful act. Theorists would say that film represents only the presentness. This does not imply that the film does not have the capacity to use time scale. Use of time scale enables the journalists from the Brazilian television crew to follow the events and analyse why they took place. Bazin who is an experienced theorist on matters that concern film confirms this, arguing,
We shall begin, necessarily, with the photographic image, the primitive element of the ultimate synthesis, and go on from there to outline, if not a theory of film language based on the hypothesis of its inherent realism, at least an analysis which in no way contradicts it (Bazin, 1958 p.59).
This statement is inconsistent with the fact that for the medium to be effectively presented, the images needs to be manipulated to fit in the mind of the viewer and to make sense while extracting truth. This inherent reality influences the work of the director in the film Bus 174 where he has the ability to manipulate the images to reflect what is happening beyond the filmic world for the viewers.
The author of this paper introduced the reader to the film which is the main focus of this study. A brief introduction to the film Bus 174 was provided including a synopsis which was put into perspective to make sure that when the author embarks on the analysis of the film in relation to medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in film, the reader will understand fully where the author is coming from. The author has also shed light on some of the themes in the film.
In the next chapter, the author is going to engage the reader in a discourse touching on the concepts of medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in film with special focus on the film Bus 174. The relationship between film and other artistic media such as photography, video and television among others will also be analysed.
Medium Specificity, Life, Death and Temporality of Images in Film
Introduction
Having discussed the film Bus 174 in the previous section, the researcher will now turn to the issue of medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in media and especially in film. Special focus will be given to Bus 174 given that it is the case for this study.
Film as an art is a process through which static or motionless objects are put into motion (Uroskie 2003, p. 2). The images are then recorded in a photographic film with the help of a camera. The pictures may also be put into motion through the use of animation techniques which is also a way of making films.
Medium Specificity: An Overview
Medium specificity is the nature of any photographic techniques that are use to put images into motion. Medium specificity exists in two different components which are internal and comparative components. Comparative medium specificity compares what a given medium is capable of doing compared to other media. This is for example what a canvas used in drawing is capable of doing as compared to a screen used in film. The film Bus 174 is an analysis of a live news telecast which is streamed through more than one channel in Brazilian televisions. This is different from a canvas that is used by an artist in capturing an image.
Internal medium on the other hand allows the medium to perform different actions in areas of its specificity. Doing better in this context is the live documentation of images in the film. Compared to other predominantly used film categories, documentation has been used perfectly to address the desire of pointing out the social menace in the country.
The art of film making is to be found in different cultures in the world. This diversity gives rise to specific artistic characteristics that vary from one culture to the other. This means that the film industry as an artistic media is appreciated by people from different cultural backgrounds. Film has been used to portray the kind of culture adopted by a particular society. For example in the film Bus 174 there are various cultural traits that are expressed by the film. On the other hand, the film affects culture by altering the behavioural patterns of people in the society (Uroskie 2003, p. 3).
To this end, film as an artistic media is used in different ways. It is both a source of entertainment and an educational tool too. In most cases, it has been used to instil cultural values in members of the society in a given country.
The author of this paper notes that film is a collection of images referred to as frames. It is noted that most of the times, these images stick to the mind of the individual viewer even after it has been removed.
Medium Specificity in Film
In chapter one, the author defined medium specificity as a process whereby art is constituted to reflect all the characteristics of the raw material. This concept is linked to modernism even though it appeared in the art scene much earlier with the contribution of veteran artists such as Clement Greenberg. He encouraged the use of the term by film and art critics to analyse both aesthetics and art itself (Cubitt et al. 2012, p. 4). Manipulation of characters in a given work of art with the view of reflecting the medium is the basis of medium specificity. Bus 174 is an example of film that has several attributes which indicate or represent medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in film.
An objective view of reality is presented in the film by using a direct mode of cinema to reflect the actual and live activities in the film. The footage allows Sandro’s actions to be viewed live but his actions cannot be explained. The director uses the direct interview medium by digging into the past to explain the current actions of the hijacker. The media presence in the location influences Sandro’s actions, motivating him and giving him confidence in what he is doing.
Media presence has been used by the director to report on the firsthand information without even editing the actions. This tells how medium specificity has been manipulated to give the viewer a personal interpretation of the reality in Brazil. Elements of medium specificity are used in the film to depict the unknown events behind the hijacking incidence. The insight is achieved by interviews as well as testimonies to show medium specificity.
Documentaries have made it possible to employ medium specificity in films and other forms of art. It makes it possible to develop and employ features that are used in fiction and narrative forms of art. Features have been used to replace lies and with the emergence of technology, observers and members of the audience are not given the opportunity to interpret the contents of the film (Bernstein 2012, p. 17). Several theorists have contested the fact that directors working in the production of a given film need to be guided by their own vision in the process. This gives the observers a chance to employ an array of analytical techniques as they evaluate and criticise the work of the writer and the director of the film.
Relationship between Media Images, Life, Death and Temporality in the Context of Bus 174
Death in film is a realistic phenomenon that needs to be captured with professionalism. Medium specificity as it has been analysed elsewhere in this paper requires the image to represent the view as it would have appeared in a real life situation. For example a reality show illustrates all the scenes as they occur in a real life situation. Images are not manipulated to suit the viewer’s interpretations but to allow the director to express his vision in the film (Campany 2009, p. 25).
The film Bus 174 was recorded two years after the hijacking incident took place. The directors found it important to refine the images to suit the cinematic view required for the film. This required appropriate sound effects with background information leading from one incident to the other. This way, the director was able to give the images life, depicting the close relationship between images and life. The quality of images is complemented by the quality of the background sound in the film. In other words, the sounds give life to the images.
Death is also a theme in the film as it is illustrated by the hijacker. He uses fellow human beings to shield himself from the police. As the police from the park approach Nascimento from behind, he fires at them but misses his target. Instead, the lady Nascimento was using as a shield was shot in the face. Death in the film takes a temporal part as the incidence shows that the hijacker is determined to kill. But his actions demonstrate something different from what the audience is expecting from him. Instead of killing the lady, Nascimento uses his hands to embrace the lady on her neck. All these scenarios depict life and death and they are used to illustrate the behaviour of the images used in the film (Campany 2009, p. 19). In such scenes, it is noted that the director is using images to express life and death. From an abstract perspective, it is noted that the director is able to create a link between life, death and images. This is given the fact that images are used to illustrate life and death.
Temporality is another aspect of this film. It has been used in the documentary to illustrate the truth by building on the evidence gathered from the scene as opposed to contradictions from various individuals in the area whom are interviewed by the media. Even though they give all that information, the viewers are taken back to the hijack scene which where the director shows them the kind of person the hijacker is.
Relationship between Film and other Forms of Media such as Video, Photography and Television
Film is related to other forms of media in many ways. The author of this paper is going to focus on just a few aspects which will help in analysing how the film Bus 174 is related to the other forms of media. Camera Lucida which is associated with Bathes illustrates the tautological aspect of photograph as a form of art. To put it in another way, photographs display “…….along with them their own reference” (Bernstein 2012, p 12). The observer does not need explicit details to reference the image on the photograph.
Television on the other hand is another way through which motion pictures as well as still objects are displayed. In many cases, television is a stream of live objects and events as they occur in the environment. Television is different from film since the images and other aspects like background sound and background information have been refined. To this end, it can be argued that the life, death and temporality of images in film vary from that of images in television. This is given the fact that the directors give the images life using different strategies. The background sound and information which are used to give the images life vary between film and television. As noted earlier, the background sound and information in television is more refined than it is in films.
Regardless of these subtle differences, both film and television present the viewer with information. But television images lack the multiple interpretations that are present in film images. To this end, it can be argued that images in television are more temporal as compared to images in films such as Bus 174. On this point, theorists contend that film directors should have a personal vision of the film.
Video is closely related to film as a form of art. It is noted that the relationship between video and film is closer than that between film and other forms of artistic media such as television. After episodes of the ‘bus174’ incident were streamed live in the televisions, most of the audience did appreciate the concerns of the young man who had hijacked the bus. Two years later the episode was crafted into a cinematic form of art so as to capture other aspects such as sound, light and even background activities (Gaut 2010, p. 7).
In this chapter, the researcher analysed some of the attributes of film as an artistic medium. To this end, the researcher looked at aspects such as medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in film. Bus 174 was used as the point of reference for this chapter and of course the whole paper.
In the next chapter, the researcher will analyse film theory from the perspective of different scholars. The agreements and disagreements between these authors will be analysed and where possible, efforts made to resolve them.
Film Theory and Bus 174
Introduction
The basic concept in a film is the ability to give human mind another opportunity to record what was viewed even after the actual viewing has taken place. This is what is referred to as the indexical relationship between the images in reference to life and death in the film. However, documentaries in general lack the ability to present the incident and imagery concept of the events. Hence there is need to manipulate the images to achieve the aspect of medium specificity in the film Bus 174.
The film starts with raw news telecast live but more events are incorporated as the film goes on. The director of the film imposed the use of archived news’ casts to balance between current narration and past incidents. Film theory comes into play with reference to Barthes Roland in the use of myth as a language in the film. In this case, use of narration is blocking or dehistoricising the documentation process. In the current media process, archival footage is the living evidence of all aspects of viewing. Young D. defines archival footage as…..…recovered actuality footage incorporated into a secondary text… that was not recorded for the specific purpose of being included in the film……. (p.4)
The postmodern documentary has given film directors a myriad of options since they can fabricate images and truths to achieve reduced distinction between fiction and documentary. Analysing Roland’s myth theory today and its implications in the film Bus 174, the author finds that there is the significant use of initial raw material. As far as myths are concerned, there is need to present them in a collection of signs that are important to the entire process. For example, the director of the film Bus 174 talks about the prison guards but according to theory of myths, it is all about the corrupt political regime. On the second collection of signs implicating myth, the director of the film talks about the former news footage archives by stating that the prison guards are always corrupt (Bernstein 2012).
Theoretical frameworks have been used in film studies to analyse several aspects of film as a form of art (Bazin 1978, p. 4). Ricciotto Canudo is one of the earliest scholars to have come up with theoretical frameworks in film studies. His first theory was applied on the birth of the sixth art. Other theorists have argued that film is different from reality but they agree on the fact that film is a valid form of art (Bazin 1978, p. 8). Just like paintings, music, sculptures or videos, a film is used to represent the reality in the society and as such, it can be said to be a true form of artistic media.
From these arguments emerged Bazin’s theory which differed from other theories as he contended that film was able to manipulate reality “……..and not different from reality as the other theorists argued” (Bazin 1999, p. 54). He argued on the basis of reality hence the emergence of the realist theory. Though there are other recent theoretical frameworks which are significantly different, in this section the researcher is going to dwell on Bazin’s classical film theory in attempts to analyse the film Bus 174.
Andre Bazin’s Film Style Theory
Although Bazin died in 1958, his contribution becomes an important aspect in this film through his expertise in film concepts. His works has elicited criticism from all sides and it becomes important in analysing this film. As a theorist, he is a person to reckon with when it comes to matters to do with film concepts. Film theory entails looking for correspondence between images and realities when the camera is rolling.
This kind of concept is being used in films today. According to Bazin, it restricts stylistic manipulation in attempts to fabricate the images. Bazin’s argument in this theory is based on ethical consideration. For example, the ethical issues in Brazil play an important role in the context of Bazin’s theory of film.
The film also makes use of cinematography where it utilises the concept to bring into focus the views of all people and exhaust the information. Other models as far as realism is concerned include documentary, Italian, neo-realism and finally the perceptual realism.
Realism in general expresses the existence of reality in human life. The existence of reality varies from one individual to the other and from one place to the other. This is to say that what is considered reality in one society or community may not be regarded as such in another society. For example in the film Bus 174, crime and police brutality are depicted as realities in the Brazilian society. This may not be the case in other societies in the world (Bazin 1999, p.31).
The philosophy of realism has been narrowed down to include reality in theatrical arts. Bazin being one of the philosophers as well as a film critic in early society has made major contributions to film theory. His contributions have influenced other people in the field.
Bazin has come up with many arguments and contends that film is supposed to exhibit multiple interpretations to capture the mind of the observer. He did not agree with other theorists such as Pudovkin who claimed that film making encompasses the use of hypothetical points of view. This is limited to observers in the film. On the contrary, Bazin approached the point by stating that film makers need to focus more on the film’s starting point. Even though this approach was ideal in the film making industry, Bazin opposed Pudovkin’s arguments (Bazin 2009, p. 22).
Bazin argues for sound manipulation to bring to bear the aspect of temporality of images in film and other artistic media. This is the basis of realism as there will is no intention of creating expressions to drive the point home. In addition, there is also the importance of applying space and depth to create reality as opposed to director’s point of view. In the case of the Bus 174, the directors used various strategies to address the view of the observers. For example have the media interview members of the public are a move to show that interpretation of events is left to the observer and not the director. In this case, it is the director’s vision which will be used if the viewer interprets the scenario.
Several social aspects are evident in the film and the director has used visions display them to the public. The public is then left to interpret the issues and problems in the society as the reality is presented in almost all telecast media in the Brazil. Bazin’s views can be used to interpret the events taking place in the film. He further argues that the film makers should rather use reality as opposed to image. He draws a sharp distinction between those directors who use image and the others who use reality in their film (Bazin 2009, p. 23). Reality is very much evident in the film used as case study in this research. The film has captured the real life scenarios as they took place on the ground. Of further significance is the fact that the images were moulded live on the national televisions. The viewers were able to give their opinions regarding what was happening in the scene, both in the real life situation and in the film scenario. To this end, it can be argued that the film directors were able to give the images life by eliciting the interest of the members of the public.
Bazin continues to argue that reality gives a film the credit that it deserves. On the other hand he accepts the fact that films are moulded on montage foundation even though the still images are not sufficient to create film scenes without the help of juxtaposition (Bazin 2009, p. 24). Editing of the film images denies them the ability to depict reality and hence the realism theory.
Bazin’s theory contains elements that support reality. One of it is the use of sound and sound effects. In the film Bus 174 sound is altered to capture the explosion of bullets and how they were fired. Sound is also evident where the crowd yells at the police to kill Nascimento.
The dramatic acts in the film are not exaggerated at all unlike the justice system in Brazil which is exaggerated to capture the attention of the viewers. This is what Phadilha (the director of the film) is trying to show. The viewers are expected to pick on the contradicting reports that the police are giving concerning the case of the hijacker. The environment of the film is natural as there are no artificial items or aspects introduced in the setting. The medium takes the viewer through a series of scenes including the life in Brazilian slums and some of the reasons that drove Nascimento to commit the crime.
The onlookers on the scene cannot see this but those following the events on national televisions can interpret what is happening from one act to the other. Bazin’s theory in such a case argues to the contrary indicating that in an artificial film the images have been manipulated to influence the viewers’ interpretations. The film in this case is appropriate as it allows the viewers to make open ended interpretations.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Bazin’s Theory in the Context of Bus 174
Bazin’s theory has some strengths and weaknesses which are clearly seen throughout his arguments. The major strength is the ability of the theory to identify ethical issues in the society, like those depicted in the film Bus 174. Here, the emphasis is on the film maker and the viewer who is able to support refute the events going on in the society, giving them a chance to correct them. This is the main strength of the theory as far as this film is concerned.
Another important and vital ingredient of the theory and which is employed in the film is the ability to use the three dimensional concept. This is from a perceptual point of view another form of realistic theory. In addition, acoustic information is relayed in a very clear manner as opposed to other film concepts in different film theories. The theory’s focus on cinematography gives the director the chance to convey the information relating to every day’s life.
In spite of this, the theory contains some weaknesses that may negatively affect the arguments made and its contributions to this film. First, the concept typifies only a small number of films which makes it difficult for different directors to use the same concepts in address issues across the continuum.
Transformative elements deny the film the ability to depict some important events and this represents another weakness of Bazin’s theory of realist. For example, the onlookers can only see what is happening but they are not filled in on what led to the action. They angrily support the police encouraging them to kill the hijacker. But with the media around the scene, the hijacker is confident enough as he is aware that the world is watching. Those who are watching through the media are provided with information unlike the onlookers (Bernstein 2012, p. 22).
In his film theory, Bazin contradicts his interpretations of film as an artistic media. To begin with he brings the montage aspect into scrutiny and denounces the aspect of editing. He argues that editing of the images deny the viewer the chance to interpret the correct and real scenarios in the field. The life of the film images is affected by the editing or so Bazin argues. This being the case, he agrees that the use of montage has given the directors an opportunity to help the viewers make adequate and accurate conclusions about the themes of the film.
The whole of Bazin’s classical theory as far as film is concerned places more emphasis the reality of imagery art. This is where the strength of the theory lies. He contended that the director needs to address his vision in the film and on the other hand the observers or members of the audience need to employ multiple interpretation techniques to make sense of what is happening to the real objects. In the case of the film used in this study reality is expressed where the director of the film tries to theorise on the life of the rich people as well as the poor people in a Brazilian society. The conflict between crime and justice the justice system is a normal occurrence for the low earning citizens of the Brazilian society. The rich do not use bus to commute between work and home. This being the case, it can be argued that Nascimento hijacked poor people to whom he is related. The justice system in the country is seen to be strict and hard on the poor people too. The lady is shot when the police officers on the scene are trying to kill Nascimento. Bazin’s theory at this juncture gives the viewers the opportunity to ponder on what befalls a particular group of people in the society.
Having looked at Bazin’s classical film theory, the author will now shift their attention to other contemporary film theorists and relate their arguments to the film bus 174.
Contemporary Film Theorists
Roland Barthes
Roland Barthes is another important figure as far as literary theory is concerned. His theories have been applied in different fields in spite of the fact that he was a writer. One of his major influences in artistic media comes from his theory explaining the various attributes of photography. This theory plays an important role in this case study. He showed that photography could be used to reveal naturalistic truths in a particular society.
To this end, he engaged himself in writing about photography and the issues surrounding this form of artistic medium. Some of his works include the camera Lucida which postulates the use of image and interpretation of the same. Two words emerge in Barthes’ interpretation of a photograph as a medium. These are stadium and punctum where the latter implies the symbol used to represent truth while the former implies interpretation of the photograph on the part of the viewer.
The contributions made by this theorist were instigated by his mother’s death after which he resolved to use photography to investigate and learn more about nature. To this end he used photography to show how the image can affect the spectator. The interaction between the viewer and the image gives the latter an aura of life, death and temporality.
As the researcher has already stated in this paper, the stadium was a representation of the cultural aspect of the photograph. This idea can be used to analyse the film used as the case for this study. The use of photography in the film Bus 174 has elicited mixed reactions and tension from the observers. As the media delves into the live interviews, photographic images were used to illustrate the different forms of life within and without the Brazilian society.
The other term punctum depicts the close relationship between the hijacker and the environment within which the crime was committed. Therefore, Roland attempts to bring out the relationship between the object in the photograph and the surrounding environment. This is how he gives his images life.
The camera Lucida compilation was like a eulogy for his mother. Reality was used here as the theorist used photographic images to reflect death. It is also important to note that Roland died shortly after publishing his work. Here, a link between photographic image and death is evident as it appears that the scholar wrote his own eulogy using the images in the photographs.
Bus 174 brings to life all the scenes that were captured as live images on camera. Viewers are given the chance to see the events live as they occurred on the ground. Temporality of images in the film appears to hog the limelight as far as Roland’s Camera Lucida is concerned. Documentary is at its best when the temporality of images depicts the realist nature of the film. It is noted that reality in this case is captured and appears in the form of medium specificity.
Laura Mulvey and Ann Doane: A Critique of Cinematic Concepts
The feminist models are part of theories that are suggested in making a film. In making a film, gender is used to depict incidences that postulate preferences which can connect various issues in the film. For example, the film Bus 174 has used women to link social practices and mentalities. The images of women used in the film are put there by men. The good thing with this theory is that it insists on gender preferences used to drive the interaction of images from one point to another in the film. Hence, Laura Mulvey and Ann Doane are important theorists in this film.
These two scholars are feminist theorists contesting the cinematic apparatus used in the film to make women appear as the major objects of attraction. Mulvey argues that women are specifically identified as objects to be desired. No wonder the hijacker used a female school teacher to distract the attention of the police and to avoid being shot. On their part, the police fired and unfortunately the woman was killed. The documentary vividly depicts this aspect when the director attempts to provide a reflection on the position of women in the society. Reality speaks for itself as the woman falls down on being shot.
Mulvey’s works on visual pleasure and narrative cinema argue that men are seen as the ones driving the film, making it move forward. Mulvey and her colleagues thought that cinematic concepts are supposed to portray a symbolic medium in which the audience are portrayed as bourgeois objects. To further support their arguments, a psychoanalysis approach centering on gender as a visual apparatus is adopted. Ann Doane on the other hand likens this to a visual gaze as men are identified as the spectators in this case.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Having looked at the case study carefully, it is now time to draw conclusions as far as medium specificity, life, death and temporality of images in film is concerned. In relation to the film Bus 174, the researcher notes that there are several conclusions that can be drawn from the whole documentary.
Bus 174 clearly illustrates how facts and images are represented in both televisual as well as cinematic artistic media. As far as televisual presentation of images is concerned, it is noted that facts have been captured and telecasted live to almost all televisions networks in Brazil. This gave the viewers a chance to have a personal encounter or experience with the actual event that was taking place. The media personnel were strategically placed together with their instruments to be able to capture all the events that were taking place (Gaut 2010, p. 18).
Televisual aspect is illustrated with the use of actual images as the camera captures them and creates photographs from the events taking place in the field. It is not fiction per se as it is obvious that most of the scenes have not been interfered with. Questions arose from the film as the episodes continued to be aired. Journalists continued to interview people and this seemed to lead them into the truth of the matter. Police were interviewed as well together with the street children who provided the observer with an opportunity to interpret social decomposition in the society. There was no editing carried out to manipulate the images for the sake of the audience. This exposed the truth behind the event through a discourse on sobriety.
Post modern cinema has been used mainly to reflect the culture of post modern society. On its part, Bus 174 appears to illustrate modernism in the society as opposed to post modernism. This society is characterised by many people with different needs leading to mass consumption. The consumption changes with technology and the use of reality documentaries illustrates the true nature of all the scenes without creating illusions. This is what modernism requires and the documentary seems to achieve it fully.
Violence in contemporary society is also reflected along with other social problems. If fiction was used to create this artistic medium, the information provided may not have exposed what really exists in the society today. Temporality of images comes to the rescue and enhances the ability of medium specificity to present the truth to the audience. For cinematic purposes, the visual element is represented through the use of temporality to address aspects such as background sound, lighting and such others. This is where the difference between televisual casting and cinematic presentation comes in. Both are films drawn from a real life event but adjustments are made to include sounds and lighting to create surreal scenery that closely resembles the real environment (Gaut 2010, p. 21).
There is no need to manipulate the Images in both cases. However, cinematic presentation alters the blurred images to reflect actual ones as they would appear in the initial place or the material they were harvested from. The cultural ambiguities and controversies that exist are illustrated well in the cinematic presentation of images. For example the rise of a hero is substituted with anti heroism to misrepresent the social problems. It could have been appropriate if the hijacker was able to present the views of the downtrodden members of the society like himself rather than attacking his ilk.
Finally, self reflective components give the film an aesthetic touch as the images that are deemed to be against the law are made open to the viewers. Bus 174 was perfect for this because it captured the attention of the viewers as well as the aesthetics of the situation. In addition dramatic elements and suspense contributed significantly to the success of the film.
References
Bazin, A 1978, Orson Welles: a critical view, Harper and Row, New York.
Bazin, A 1999, The evolution of the language of cinema, Free Press, New York.
Bazin, A 2009, What is cinema? Caboose, Montreal.
Bernstein, BE 2012, Medium specificity, Free Press, New York.
Blakeney, K 2009, ‘An analysis of film critic Andre Bazin’s views on expressionism and realism in film’, Film and Cinema, vol. 1 no. 12, pp. 1-10.
Campany, D 2009, Photography and cinema, Free Press, New York.
Cubitt, S Palmer, D & Walkling, L (2012), ‘Reflections on medium specificity occasioned by the symposium Digital Light: Technique, Technology, Creation, Melbourne, 2011’, MIRAJ, vol. 1 no. 1, pp. 31-37.
Gaut, B 2010, A philosophy of cinematic art, Cambridge UP, Cambridge.
Shankel, N 2011, The relationship between film and television medium today, Harper and Row, New York.
Uroskie, AV 2003, ‘Film as film and cinema: towards an expanded conception of medium’, The Arts in Question, Spring 2003.
Villarejo, A 2006, ‘Bus 174 and the living present’, Cinema Journal, vol. 46 no. 1, pp. 115-120.
Young, D 2003, Bus 174, Free Press, New York.
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