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Introduction

Men and women share characteristics that distinguish each sex from the other. These differences have been profound to the extent that comparisons have been made to imply that men and women come from different planets (Deaner et al., 2022). In scholarly research, the physical differences between both genders are rarely contested; however, the psychological variations between them have attracted controversy (Fernandez et al., 2020). Part of the contention has been in determining the right scale for measuring these differences (Warren et al., 2021). At the same time, scholars hold differed opinions on whether the differences between both genders are innate or biological (Deaner et al., 2022). These debates have morphed into questions that are centered on answering a key fundamental question  are the sexual differences between men and women innate or products of cultural socialization?

The psychology of men and women has been a common topic of discussion in academic literature. Sex differences among the genders are associated with the study of how men and women exhibit cognitive and behavioral traits (Fernandez et al., 2020). These studies stem from the influence of overt and covert differences between the sexes that have intrigued societies for centuries. Overt differences between men and women stem from physical variations between the sexes (American Psychological Association, 2020). For example, women are assumed to have warmer and friendlier personalities compared to their male counterparts do (Warren et al., 2021). Similarly, men are deemed to be more assertive and aggressive compared to women (American Psychological Association, 2020). Overall, these stereotypes stem from the manifestation of physical differences between both genders.

Media representations of men and women have perpetrated some of the above-mentioned differences with little to no evidence. Books, magazines, and Hollywood movies have also promoted the same stereotypes. For example, dating shows have consistently propagated the idea that failed relationships between the sexes are consequences of different communication styles (American Psychological Association, 2020). These perceptions affect how people view the roles of both men and women in society. For example, women who deviate from the traditional role of caregiving and nurturing tend to be treated unfairly during periods where managers look for employees to promote or undertake job evaluations (Gruber et al., 2021). Similarly, the educational performance of children tends to be negatively affected by some of the existing gender stereotypes. For example, the assumption that boys score better grades in mathematics, compared to girls, could negatively impact the ability of the latter to improve their overall performance (Fernandez et al., 2020). Therefore, the traditional perceptions of gender identity and roles continue to permeate in society, despite the progress made in promoting gender equality in different spheres of life.

Despite the glaring differences between men and women, this paper adopts an intrinsic approach to investigating the research issue by investigating differences between both genders, based on their expression of gratuity. Gratuity is a form of appreciation that people initiate when they receive a good or service (Deaner et al., 2022). This form of monetary appreciation includes offering incentives to service providers, especially in the hospitality industry, to improve or sustain the quality of their services (Fernandez et al., 2020). Tipping is a form of gratuity that customers have used to motivate employees. It is associated with improved employee morale because millions of workers worldwide depend on it as a source of income (Warren et al., 2021). Overall, tipping is a strong motivator for predicting peoples economic behaviors. Given its importance to boosting peoples morale, this paper seeks to investigate gender differences in tipping behaviors. The study is informed by existing differences in perception and ideology among men and women, which affect their economic behaviors. This analogy emphasizes the importance of analyzing peoples welfare beyond their economic interests and surroundings. Instead, more attention should be paid to understand the main issue, by reviewing the matter holistically and including social and economic aspects of development, in predicting human action.

Hypothesis

The process of understanding gender differences in tipping behaviors between men and women is complicated. This is because the psychological variations between both genders are speculated to affect their decision-making processes (American Psychological Association, 2020). In this study, it is hypothesized that men tip more than women do because they are assumed to be more generous compared to their female counterparts (Fernandez et al., 2020). Therefore, three types of hypotheses can be developed from this investigation. They are detailed as follows:

• H1  Men tip more than women do
• H2  Women tip more than men do
• H0  Neither genders tip more than the other does

Based on the nature of the three hypotheses described above, three hypotheses emerge in this investigation. Each one of them presents three scenarios that could explain possible outcomes that could emerge from the current investigations. As highlighted above, the current investigation predicts that men tip more than women do. Therefore, in this research study this hypothesis is tested.

Prior Research

The impact of gender on peoples behaviors has been explored from different perspectives. In the current study, this phenomenon is investigated from an economic perspective with the act of giving tips highlighted as a psychological/social motivation for shaping human behavior. This statement stems from then idea that people pay for tips without any legal obligation to do so. Three studies are investigated in this review to explore this topic in-depth because they share a close relationship with the current focus of investigation, which is to explore gender differences in tipping behaviors between both sexes. These studies are important to the current investigation because they explain the motivations for pursuing different behaviors between men and women.

First Study

In the first study, researchers investigated the economics of tipping by exploring reasons why people show gratitude. The study was spread across two demographic groups with the first one comprised of Americans and the second one made up of Israelis (Azar, 2020). The findings suggested that when customers develop long-term relationships with service providers, the motivation to tip is enhanced by the expectation that the act will contribute towards quality improvements (Azar, 2020). The findings equally suggested that the nature of relationship between a service provider and customer influences tipping behaviors. Particularly, it emerged that customers tip less when they do not expect to meet the same service provider (Azar, 2020). Given that the researchers focused on investigating differences in tipping behavior between Israeli and American customers, they tabulated reasons that both sets of respondents gave in expressing gratuity and detailed them as shown in Table 1 below.

Table 1. Reasons for Tipping (Source: Adapted from Azar, 2020)

A summary of the above-findings suggest that social and psychological reasons best explain peoples tipping behaviors. This outcome is enforced in the above-mentioned findings because consumers in Israel and America were not motivated to tip because of future product and service expectations. Instead, they argued that their tipping behaviors were informed by social norms and their willingness to show gratitude (Azar, 2020). These reasons point to the significant influence of psychology and social conditioning on peoples behaviors. This outcome contradicts a previously held belief that future product or service quality expectations inform peoples motivation to tip.

The above-mentioned findings provided further details to explain differences in behavior between two sets of customers. In the first case, the researcher observed that US respondents tipped above normal rates (Azar, 2020). The reason for offering high tips was to generate feelings of generosity and servitude. US customers also did so to impress others and to reinforce their social image in society (Azar, 2020). These reasons point to the role of social and psychological influences as the primary drivers of human behavior. Recent research evidence suggests that environmental reasons affecting the workplace environment could be affecting how people view the work that service providers do (Fernandez et al., 2020). For example, the hospitality industry has most recently been affected with job losses and low employee morale due to the COVID-19 pandemic and its effects. As the world resumes normalcy, it is becoming increasingly important to boost employee morale to achieve optimum performance (Fernandez et al., 2020). Therefore, the demanding nature of the workplace environment has created new stressors for employees worldwide.

Second Study

In the second study, Fernandez et al. (2020) investigated the influence of tip-enhancing behaviors on workers in the hospitality industry. These behaviors were taught in training sessions and they advocated for the adoption of friendly customer service behaviors, such as smiling, introducing oneself by name, and saying thank you to sustain customer interest (Fernandez et al., 2020). The study was designed to investigate the behaviors of two sets of respondents who received training on tip-enhancing behaviors. The first one was comprised of 74 respondents who acted as a control group to the experimental one, which was made up of 69 people (Fernandez et al., 2020). In sum, the study sampled the views of 143 respondents who worked as service attendants in 62 restaurants. After the training session, the amount of tips that the waiters received were monitored for five days. It was observed that those who applied tip-enhancing behaviors experienced a significant increase in their income. These findings of the above study suggest that training can significantly improve the number of tips a service provider receives (Fernandez et al., 2020). The implication of this finding is that employee loyalty can be enhanced through training. This is because the positive relationship between training outcomes and an increase in tips is likely to make workers stay with an employer for a long time, hence enhancing job retention rates (Fernandez et al., 2020). These findings highlight the importance of improving the workplace environment as a function of performance.

Third Study

The third study that is relevant to this investigation and that underpins the value of the current study relates to the integration of technology in customer service. Warren et al. (2021) authored this study and it was meant to understand how tips influenced a customers service requirements, and the nature of services offered in a business. Particularly, the researchers explored the role of mobile-based point-of-sale contacts between customers and their service providers to assess consumer behavior (Warren et al., 2021). The investigation mainly focused on how requesting for tips from customers at the start of the service process affected customers and their service providers (Warren et al., 2021). The influences of pre-service and post-service tip sequences were examined in this investigation using a four-stage experimental process. The first one was a natural experiment and the other three were controlled experiments. The investigation was done in the food and beverage service sectors of the economy.

The findings of the study revealed that initial requests for tips at the onset of the service sequence led to the generation of fewer number of tips compared to an alternate scenario where post-service tip sequencing was implemented. A reduced number of return retentions and a suppressed quantity of word-of-mouth communications were also associated with initial tip sequencing formats (Warren et al., 2021). In this analysis, the manipulative intent of tips is underscored as the main tool for recalibrating sequencing formats. Overall, this study suggested that emphasizing the benefits of point-of-sale service is a critical process of making sure that tips are sequenced in a manner that optimizes returns (Warren et al., 2021). Broadly, this investigation discourages service providers from requesting for tips before providing the desired service.

Summary

As highlighted in this section of the study, three studies, which share commonalities with the present focus of the investigation, were examined. The main feature that all studies share is their focus on the tipping behaviors of men and women. Particularly, the studies highlighted the importance of evaluating the psychosocial and social influences of human behavior as a predictor of their economic actions. However, these studies fail to explore gender differences in the economic behaviors of both genders. The present investigation seeks to fill this research gap by examining differences in tipping behaviors between men and women.

Method

The researcher observed the behaviors of paying customers in a restaurant by observing their behaviors in a social setting. In this regard, observation emerged as the main research design. Their interpretive discretion that researchers have when using observation gives them the power to report the behaviors of the respondents as they occur. The main drawback linked with this research design is time-management because observing the behaviors of all the respondents was time-consuming.

Sample Population

The researcher observed the behaviors of 40 subjects who represented each gender evenly. In other words, 20 men and 20 women voluntarily chose to participate in the study. These respondents were randomly selected from a larger body of respondents comprised of students who visited the school restaurant during a one-week survey period. The purposeful sampling method was used in this investigation because the researcher desired to observe the behaviors of an equal number of boys and girls (Warren et al., 2021). Overall, the student population provided a pool of people for observing tipping behaviors between both genders.

Data Collection

The researcher collected data for the current study by observing the behaviors of both men and women in a restaurant setting. Azar (2020) defines the observation technique as a mode of observing behavior, events, and the natural characteristics of a research setting to make conclusions about a research issue. The selected tipping behaviors were observed in a restaurant setting where women and men naturally interacted with waiters in a school restaurant setting. Overall, the nature of interaction between the researcher and the subjects did not involve talking; instead, behavior was merely observed and recorded.

Research Variables

It is important to understand the variables of a study to know the main issues affecting it. In the current study, two main variables affecting the probe were gender and ethnicity. Gender is a dichotomous variable in the sense that it is classified as either male or female. Alternately, ethnicity was classified into five categories: African-American, Caucasian, Hispanics, Mixed race, and Asians.

Operational Definition

• Tip: A monetary reward given by a customer to a service provider, which is above the selling price to show gratuity for services offered or goods purchased
• Man: Adult male
• Woman: Adult female
• Foot traffic: Number of customers frequenting a restaurant at a specific time

Controls

The nature of controls affecting this investigation was that they could affect the outcomes of the study. In the context of the present probe, three key factors are identified as the main controls of the investigation. They include day of the week, time of day, and location of study. Details relating to each of the controls are highlighted below.

• Day of the Week: The day of week to observe behaviors between customers and service providers in a restaurant setting affects the quality of interaction between the two parties. This is because certain days of the week register a higher rate of foot traffic of customers compared to others. For example, Azar (2020) says that, depending on a countrys culture, weekends tend to attract the highest number of customers and tips. Therefore, conducting a study during such periods is likely to yield more profound outcomes compared to any other day of the week. In the context of the current investigation, the day of the week is a controlled variable.
• Time of Day: The time of day customers visit a restaurant often varies the foot traffic numbers. For example, lunch hours attract more customers than middle morning hours. Similarly, in some restaurants, such as coffee shops, evening hours have more foot traffic compared to lunch hours (Warren et al., 2021). In the current study, observations on tipping behaviors were made during lunch hours when the cafeteria had more than 80% seating capacity filled. The aim of observing peoples behaviors during this time was to make the most notes within a short time.
• Location of Study: The location of the study was another research control variable for this investigation. It influences the demographic characteristics of people who frequent restaurants. In turn, these features affect customer attitudes and, by extension, their tipping behaviors (Warren et al., 2021). As highlighted in this paper, the current investigation was contextualized in an institutional setting where the tipping behaviors of students were observed. The implication of contextualizing the study in an institutional setting is that students have limited earning potential compared to the public. Therefore, the tipping behaviors observed in the study could be suppressed for this reason. In this regard, the location of the study was a control variable for the present investigation.

Observations

As highlighted in this study, the researcher made observations about the economic behaviors of men and women in a restaurant setting. To recap, the two main variables in this study were gender and ethnicity. As highlighted in Table 2 below, an equal number of male and female respondents took part in the investigation.

Gender

Table 2. Distribution of respondents according to gender (Source: Developed by Author)

The equal number of men and women who participated in the study represented the importance of having a gender-neutral informant group to test the hypothesis of the study. Stated differently, to understand gender differences in tipping, it was important to have equal representation of the sexes. This selection created a neutral basis for evaluating whether any of the sexes tipped more than the other did. Table 3 below highlights the behaviors of each of the two groups of respondents.

Table 3. Tipping behaviors between men and women (Source: Developed by Author)

According to table 2 above, men tipped more than women did because 12 out of 20 respondents observed in the investigation tipped the service providers, while only 10/20 of the female informants did the same. Based on these findings, it was important to undertake further analysis to estimate the overall effect that the genders of the informants affected their economic behaviors. To meet this objective, it was essential to undertake a statistical analysis based on the one-way ANOVA analysis using the Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The findings are highlighted in Table 4 below.

Table 4. Effects of gender on tipping behaviors (Source: Developed by author)

According to the ANOVA findings highlighted above, the respondents gender shared a weak correlation with their tipping behaviors. This finding is affirmed because the significance value of this variable was less than p<0.05, which is the standard measure of significance for assessing the findings.

Ethnicity

The second variable investigated in this study related to the respondents ethnicity. As highlighted in Table 5 below, most of the informants were Caucasian. They accounted for 62.5% of the total cases observed in the study. Hispanics formed the second largest demographic of respondents and it comprised 22.5% of the total cases observed in the investigation.

Table 5. Distribution of respondents according to ethnicity (Source: Developed by Author)

The findings highlighted above are depicted graphically in Figure 1 below.

Given that ethnicity was one of the key variables in this study, it was essential for the researcher to analyze whether this variable had a significant impact on the findings. Table 6 below shows that this variable had an insignificant effect on customers tipping behaviors because the significance value of 0.383, which was reported in the study, is higher than the p<0.05 threshold of significance. These findings were obtained after conducting a correlation analysis using the one-way ANOVA technique.

Table 6. Effects of ethnicity on tipping behaviors (Source: Developed by Author)

Overall, the findings highlighted above reveal that, although Caucasians formed a majority of observed cases in the study, their ethnicity played an insignificant role in influencing their decision on whether to tip, or not. The same logic is applicable to other ethnic groups represented in the investigation.

Control Variables

As highlighted in the methodology section of this study, factors that could have influenced the observations made in the current probe were deemed as control factors. The effects of these elements on the findings were factored in the present investigation using descriptive and inferential analytical techniques. To recap, three control variables were investigated in the study and they included time of day for observing behaviors, day of week of making observations, and the location of the study. The impact of each of these variables is highlighted below.

• Time of Day: As highlighted in Table 7 below, the time of day for making observations was included in the study as a control variable. Based on the effect that it has on foot traffic in a restaurant, the time of day for making observations was classified into three categories: morning, lunchtime, and evening. Table 7 below shows that 50% of the observations made in the study were done during lunch hours. An additional 35% of the observations recorded were compiled during the morning hours of restaurant operations. Comparatively, the least number of observations were made in the evening hours.

Table 7. Distribution of observations based on time of day (Source: Developed by Author)

The findings highlighted above are graphiclly depicted in Figure 2 below.

Based on variations of time of day for observing the respondents highlighted above, it was important for the researcher to investigate its impact on the findings. To this end, another ANOVA analysis was undertaken and the findings were similar to other variables investigated in the same manner  the time of day of making the observations had an insignificant impact on the findings. Table 8 below shows that the significance value for this variable was higher than the p<0.05 threshold.

Table 8. Impact of time of day on findings (Source: Developed by Author)

Overall, based on the findings highlighted above, it can be assumed that the time of day of making the observations did not affect the behavior of the respondents.

• Day of Week: The day of the week for making observations was another control variable in the present study. The investigation was undertaken in five days and according to Table 9 below, most of the observations made were on Friday, which is among the busiest days of the week for restaurants. The least number of observations were made on Wednesday, Mondays, and Thursdays.

Table 9. Distribution of observations according to day of week (Source: Developed by Author)

The above-mentioned findings are mirrored on the pie chart below, which appears as Figure 3.